Kroniek van een ontmoeting die er nooit kwam
Wat hebben een Native-American danseres, Molly Spotted Elk, en de groep artiesten van het Frans Surrealisme gemeen? Naast dat ze allebei deelnamen aan de culturele scène van interbellum Parijs, niet zo heel veel zo blijkt. Maar dat is nog maar het begin van het verhaal.
Primitivisme
De Europese avant-gardes van de eerste helft van de twintigste eeuw waren verzot op wat zij “primitieve” kunst noemden. Dat was de term die ze gebruikten voor zowat alle niet-Westerse en Inheemse kunst. In de jaren 1930 in Parijs waren het in het bijzonder de Afrikaanse objecten die populair waren onder de beau monde. Vaak waren deze objecten echter brutaal geroofd. Hun verzameldrang kan bovendien niet losgezien worden van de algehele obsessie met Zwart-Amerikaanse jazz cultuur.
Dat alles was te mainstream voor de Surrealisten. Zij keken naar Oceanische, Pre-Colombiaanse en cruciaal, Native-American en Inuit kunstobjecten. Bovendien apprecieerden ze niet enkel de vorm. Ze wouden ook alles weten over de mythes en gebruiken die achter de objecten schuilden. In die gebruiken zagen zij een “irrationeel” alternatief voor de Westerse focus op rede.
Georges Bataille bijvoorbeeld zag in de ceremoniële vernietiging van waardeobjecten tijdens de Kwakwaka‘wakw potlatch een uitweg voor het kapitalisme. Pittig detail: terwijl die ceremonie als entertainment opgevoerd werd in Parijs, heerste er in Canada al jaren een strikt verbod op de potlatch.
La Grande France
“Primitief” was dus een positieve eigenschap voor de avant-gardes, nochtans voelen we dat vandaag helemaal anders aan. Frankrijk kende in de jaren 1930 het hoogtepunt van haar koloniale uitbreiding. Appreciatie voor niet-Westerse kunstobjecten en Zwart-Amerikaanse populaire cultuur werd dus gekaderd door een racistische mindset die Europa als het summum van de beschaving zag. Die paradox geeft een gespannen invulling aan het concept “primitivisme”.
De Koloniale Tentoonstelling van 1931 was hét symbool van dit hoogtepunt van het Frans imperialisme. Op deze wereldtentoonstelling lieten Frankrijk en tal van andere Europese landen, waaronder België, zien hoe ze de “beschaving” hadden gebracht naar hun kolonies. Tegelijkertijd adverteerden ze lokale eigenheid aan de hand van dansopvoeringen en “authentieke” paviljoenen. Ook werden er mensen tentoongesteld op de Expositie in zogeheten “mensentuinen”.
Poster voor de koloniale expositie
Molly Spotted Elk
Molly Spotted Elk (1903-1977), een Native-American Penobscot danseres, kwam naar Parijs om te dansen op de Exposition Coloniale. Ze maakte deel uit van een Native entertainmentcultuur die typisch was voor de Verenigde Staten. Denk dan vooral ook aan Wild West shows en Westerns. Om de rollen van de “Indianen” te vervullen in dit genre, werd er gescout op Native-American reservaten. De rollen waren vaak denigrerend en stereotiep. Toch vonden veel Native-Americans dat ze als entertainers meer respect en vrijheid kregen dan op het reservaat. Zo belandde ook Spotted Elk in dat circuit. Maar haar passie voor dans bracht haar ertoe te dromen van Parijs. In die stad zou ze eindelijk vrij zijn om zichzelf uit te drukken zoals ze wou.
Hoewel de Exposition Coloniale dus een koloniaal machtsvertoon van formaat was, zag Spotted Elk het als haar big break. Haar dagboeken en brieven zijn laaiend enthousiast over de pracht en praal van de expositie. Dit staat in contrast met de kritische, anti-imperialistische pamfletten van de Franse Surrealisten. Met titels als “Bezoek de Koloniale Expositie niet!” en “Eerste schadebalans van de Koloniale Expositie” spiegelen die pamfletten hedendaagse kritiek op wereldtentoonstellingen. In hun tegententoonstelling voerden ze zelf performances op die parodieën waren op dansopvoeringen zoals die door Spotted Elk.
En daar wringt het schoentje toch. Spotted Elk wou met haar dansen oprechte appreciatie voor haar cultuur en uitdrukking van haar eigen bestaan in de moderniteit bereiken. Dat blijkt uit haar gepassioneerde betogen in haar dagboeken. Toch zagen de Surrealisten haar dans als een zij-fenomeen, medeplichtig aan het imperialistisch vertoon en totaal commercieel ingegeven. Ook vandaag blijft die neiging om exotische danseressen van deze periode van hun eigenheid en stemkracht te ontdoen. Ze worden steeds voorgesteld als slachtoffers van hun periode, wat kortzichtig is.
Fundamentele verschillen
Nochtans, zoals hierboven beschreven, waren de Franse Surrealisten zelf hele grote fans van al wat Native-American was. Zo blijkt ook dat veel van hen wel aanwezig waren op Native-American performances als die plaatsvonden in het grote etnografische museum. In dit museum, het Trocadéro, was Spotted Elk ook kind aan huis. Zij en de Surrealisten waren dan ook meermaals in dezelfde ruimtes aanwezig. Toch ontmoetten ze elkaar nooit.
De Surrealisten waren geïnteresseerd in een geïdealiseerd beeld dat ze hadden over de Native-American bevolkingsgroepen. Spotted Elk als moderne vrouw die alle pijn en trauma van het assimilatieprogramma van de VS had ervaren, was niet “authentiek” genoeg voor hen. Hoewel ze lezingen gaf over die ervaringen aan het Institut d’Ethnologie, waren daar waarschijnlijk nooit Surrealisten aanwezig. Dit toont de problematische kant van avant-garde “primitivisme”. Omdat de fascinatie van het Westen zo romantiserend was, werd alles wat dat idealistische beeld niet bevestigde geweerd. Surrealisten als André Breton en Max Ernst kochten dan wel massaal Native-American kunst, ze ondernamen nooit of amper pogingen om de eigenlijke mensen te leren kennen.
Aan de andere kant, had Spotted Elk ook geen interesse in de Surrealisten. Parijs was diep politiek gepolariseerd in deze periode. Spotted Elk gruwelde van de communistische ideologie van het Surrealisme. Verbazingwekkend genoeg moest ze ook niet hebben van hun anti-imperialisme. Ze was politiek geëngageerd tegen het assimilatieprogramma van de V.S., maar ze stond positief tegenover het Frans imperialisme. In dat opzicht was ze ongetwijfeld beïnvloed door het beeld dat in de V.S. bestond over Frankrijk als hét land van de vrijheid.
De fundamentele tegenstelling tussen Spotted Elk en het Surrealisme wijst op een culturele scène die bijna even gepolariseerd was als de politiek. Toch heeft de geschiedenis steeds de kant van het Surrealisme gekozen. Onderzoekers verdedigen het idealisme van de Surrealisten al sinds de jaren 70. Daarentegen, is het waardeoordeel over exotische dansen onveranderd gebleven. Het bestaan van danseressen als Spotted Elk is daarom vaak tussen de pagina’s van de geschiedenisboeken verdwenen. Toch zijn het net deze transculturele expressies die voor onze huidige geglobaliseerde samenleving razend interessant zijn.
Bibliografie
Primary sources
Unpublished primary sources
Breton, André. “The Hopi Notebook.” Nevada, 1945. BRT101. Bibliothèque littéraire Jacques Doucet, Paris.
Coze, Paul. “Album Paul Coze.” Paris, 1939-1929. PA000514. Archives du musée du quai Branly, Paris.
Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner. “Dossier: Spotted Elk: Katah-Din.” Paris, June 15, 1939. Box 2, folder 12. Molly Spotted Elk Collection (MF079). Fogler Library Special Collections and Archives. Maine University, Orono, Maine.
Paalen, Wolfgang. Letter to André Breton. “Ta lettre de Vermillieu me parvient à Vancouver...” Vancouver, August 21, 1939. BRTC2232. Bibliothèque littéraire Jacques Doucet, Paris.
Prophet, Nancy Elizabeth. “Letter from Elizabeth Prophet to W. E. B. Du Bois, November 14, 1931.” W. E. B. Du Bois Papers (MS 312). Special Collections and University Archives. University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries, Amherst, Massachusetts. https://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b060-i352.
———. “Paris Diary of Nancy Elizabeth Prophet,” 1922-1932. Brown Archival & Manuscript Collections Online. Library of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island. https://repository.library.brown.edu/studio/item/bdr:786291/.
Spotted Elk, Molly. Molly Spotted Elk’s Diaries from 1929-1933. Box 7. Molly Spotted Elk Collection (MF079). Fogler Library Special Collections and Archives. Maine University, Orono, Maine.
Published primary sources
Archambaud, Jean. “Cependant qu’on inaugure la Maison de Washington à Vincennes.” Paris Soir, May 27, 1931. Gallica.
———.“Une mission française va partir pour tenter de sauver des races condamnées.” Paris-Soir, March 18, 1931. Gallica.
Au grand air: guide du campeur et du touriste. “Pour la première fois, une Indienne consent à dévoiler les ‘secrets’ de l’endurance physique de sa race.” May 25, 1939. Gallica.
Breton, André, Paul Eluard, Benjamin Péret, and Georges Sadoul. “Ne Visitez-Pas l’Exposition Coloniale,” May 1, 1931. Bibliothèque Kandinsky, Centre Pompidou.
———. “Premier bilan de l’exposition coloniale,” July 3, 1931. Bibliothèque Kandinsky, Centre Pompidou.
Doumergue, Gaston. "Annexe au procès-verbal de la séance du 31 mars 1931: Projet de loi adopté par la chambre des députés autorisant le ministre de l’Instruction publique et des Beaux-Arts à participer aux frais de l’organisation de la mission Dakar-Djibouti", Pub. L. No. 410, Publicized formally in Impressions: projets, propositions, rapports... (1931). Gallica.
G., Georges. “Peaux-Rouges d’Hier et Aujourd’hui.” Record: grand journal hebdomadaire, May 23, 1931. Gallica.
Griaule, Marcel. “La mission Dakar-Djibouti.” Bulletin mensuel de l’Association française pour l’avancement des sciences, January 1, 1934. Gallica.
La Critique cinématographique. “Echos sur le C.I.C.” September 24, 1932. Gallica.
Mauny, Jaques. “Cleaning Up the Paris Trocadero.” The New York Times, January 4, 1931. New York Times Archive.
Omer, Georges. “L’auteur d’Impressions d’Afrique fait don de 10.000 francs à la mission Dakar-Djibouti.” Paris-soir, February 15, 1931. Gallica.
Paris-Midi. “Les Arts: Peinture Exotique.” June 10, 1926. Gallica.
Paris-soir. “Sous l’oeil des agents.” April 29, 1931. Gallica.
Richard, Marius. “L’art Indien va-t-il remplacer l’art nègre?” La Liberté, October 20, 1932. Gallica.
Rivet, Paul. “Wakanda, cercle d’art et d’études Peaux-Rouges.” Journal de la Société des américanistes 26, no. 1 (1934): 203.
Robert, Artus. “Le Pavillon Américain.” Le Journal de l’Exposition Coloniale, June 1, 1931. Gallica.
Rondelet. “Le boxeur nègre Al Brown...” L’Écho de Paris, November 22, 1930. Gallica.
Saurel, Louis. “Les Vedettes de Couleur.” Les Dimanches de la Femme, December 25, 1932. Gallica.
Shör. “Spotted Elk ‘L’Elan Moucheté.’” Pour Vous/ L’Intran: L’Hebdomadaire Du Cinéma, September 17, 1931. La Cinémathèque de Toulouse.
The New York Herald (European edition). “Indians on the Tower.” August 10, 1889. Gallica.
The New York Times. “Buffalo Bill Returns with His Sioux Braves.” October 2, 1906. New York Times Archive.
Unknown. “Les boxeurs s’intéressent à la mission Griaule.” Les Annales coloniales: organe de la “France coloniale moderne,” April 13, 1931. Gallica.
Secondary sources
Articles
Adamowicz, Elza. “Surrealizing Wifredo Lam?” Forum for Modern Language Studies 58, no. 1 (January 1, 2022): 106–19. https://doi.org/10.1093/fmls/cqac008.
Altman, Meryl. “Was Surrealism a Humanism? The Case of Michel Leiris.” Symposium: A Quarterly Journal in Modern Literatures 67, no. 1 (January 1, 2013): 47–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/00397709.2013.762855.
Anderson, Stephanie. “Manhood, Literary Heroes and Ethnographic Expeditioning In Michel Leiris’s L’Afrique Fantome.” Canberra Anthropology 21, no. 2 (October 1, 1998): 60–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/03149099809508366.
Andrade, Oswald de, and Stella M. de Sá Rego. “Manifesto of Pau-Brasil Poetry.” Latin American Literary Review 14, no. 27 (1986): 184–87.
Bannan, Helen M. “Review of Molly Spotted Elk: A Penobscot in Paris, by Bunny McBride.” American Indian Quarterly 22, no. 4 (1998): 515–17. https://doi.org/10.2307/1184851.
Berliner, Brett A. “Dancing Dangerously: Colonizing the Exotic at the Bal Nègre in the Inter-War Years.” French Cultural Studies 12, no. 34 (2001): 059–075. https://doi.org/10.1177/095715580101203404.
Blake, Jody. “The Truth about the Colonies, 1931: Art Indigène in Service of the Revolution.” Oxford Art Journal 25, no. 1 (2002): 35–58.
Bollenot, Vincent. “ « Ne Visitez Pas l’exposition Coloniale! » La Campagne Contre l’exposition Coloniale Internationale de 1931, Un Moment Anti-Impérialiste.” French Colonial History 18 (2019): 69–99.
Britton, Celia. “Ethnography as Relation: The Significance of the French Caribbean in the Ethnographic Writing of Michel Leiris.” French Studies 66, no. 1 (2012): 41–53. https://doi.org/10.1093/fs/knr201.
Clarck-Taoua, Phyllis. “In Search of New Skin: Michel Leiris’s L’Afrique Fantôme.” Cahiers d’études Africaines 42, no. 167 (2002): 479–98. https://doi.org/10.4000/etudesafricaines.153.
Clifford, James. “On Ethnographic Surrealism.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 23, no. 4 (1981): 539–64.
Conley, Katharine. “Value and Hidden Cost in André Breton’s Surrealist Collection.” South Central Review 32, no. 1 (2015): 8–22.
Cowling, Elizabeth. “The Eskimos, the American Indians and the Surrealists.” Art History 1, no. 4 (1978): 484–500. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8365.1978.tb00029.x.
Debaene, Vincent. “Les surréalistes et le musée d’ethnographie.” Labyrinthe, no. 12 (June 30, 2002): 71–94. https://doi.org/10.4000/labyrinthe.1209.
Foster, Hal. “The ‘Primitive’ Unconscious of Modern Art.” October 34 (1985): 45–70. https://doi.org/10.2307/778488.
Geis, Terri. “Myth, History and Repetition: André Breton and Vodou in Haiti.” South Central Review 32, no. 1 (2015): 56–75.
Henderson, Mae G. “Josephine Baker and La Revue Nègre: From Ethnography to Performance.” Text and Performance Quarterly 23, no. 2 (April 1, 2003). https://doi.org/10.1080/1046293032000141338.
Hodeir, Catherine. “La « Fée électricité » à l’Exposition coloniale de Paris (1931).” Outre-Mers. Revue d’histoire 89, no. 334 (2002): 55–69. https://doi.org/10.3406/outre.2002.3924.
Horton, Jessica L. “Performing Paint, Claiming Space: The Santa Fe Indian School Posters on Paul Coze’s Stage in Paris, 1935.” Transatlantica. Revue d’études Américaines. American Studies Journal, no. 2 (December 31, 2017). https://doi.org/10.4000/transatlantica.11220.
Kavky, Samantha. “Authorship and Identity in Max Ernst’s Loplop.” Art History 28, no. 3 (2005): 357–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0141-6790.2005.00468.x.
Kealiinohomoku, Joann W. “Review of Molly Spotted Elk: A Penobscot in Paris, by Bunny McBride.” Dance Research Journal 29, no. 2 (1997): 92–95. https://doi.org/10.2307/1478737.
Kucich, John J. “Lost in the Maine Woods: Henry David Thoreau, Joseph Nicolar, and the Penobscot World.” The Concord Saunterer 19/20 (2011): 22–52.
Larson, Ruth. “Ethnography, Thievery, and Cultural Identity: A Rereading of Michel Leiris’s L’Afrique Fantôme.” PMLA 112, no. 2 (1997): 229–42.
Leclercq, Sophie. “Le Colonialisme Mis à Nu. Quand Les Surréalistes Démythifiaient La France Coloniale (1919-1962).” Revue Historique 310, no. 2 (2008): 315–36.
Lento, Mzukisi. “Rethinking the Concept of Double Consciousness in Du Bois’ The Souls of Black Folks (1903).” Journal of Literary Studies 37, no. 3 (July 3, 2021): 52–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/02564718.2021.1959761.
Lemaire, Marianne. “Deborah Lifchitz, une carrière d’ethnologue française dans l’entre-deux-guerres.” Revue d’histoire des sciences humaines, no. 35 (December 15, 2019): 197–213. https://doi.org/10.4000/rhsh.4247.
Lottini, Irene. “When Buffalo Bill Crossed the Ocean: Native-American Scenes in Early Twentieth Century European Culture.” European Journal of American Culture 31, no. 3 (October 18, 2012): 187–203. https://doi.org/10.1386/ejac.31.3.187_1.
Majluf, Natalia. “‘Ce n’est Pas Le Pérou,’ or, the Failure of Authenticity: Marginal Cosmopolitans at the Paris Universal Exhibition of 1855.” Critical Inquiry 23, no. 4 (1997): 868–93.
Mathews, Nancy Mowll. “Gauguin, Buffalo Bill, and the Cowboy Hat.” Transatlantica. Revue d’études Américaines. American Studies Journal, no. 2 (December 31, 2017). https://doi.org/10.4000/transatlantica.10968.
Mathur, Saloni. “Response: Belonging to Modernism.” The Art Bulletin 90, no. 4 (2008): 558–60.
Mauzé, Marie. “Trois Destinées, Un Destin. Biographie d’une Coiffure Kwakwaka’wakw.” Gradhiva: Revue d’histoire et d’archives de l’anthropologie, no. 7 (2008): 100–119.
———. “Odes à l’art de la côte Nord-Ouest. Surréalisme et ethnographie.” Gradhiva. Revue d’anthropologie et d’histoire des arts, no. 26 (December 6, 2017): 180–209. https://doi.org/10.4000/gradhiva.3467.
———. “Totemic Landscapes and Vanishing Cultures.” Journal of Surrealism and the Americas, no. 2 (2008): 1–24.
McEvilley, Thomas. “Doctor Lawyer Indian Chief: “‘Primitivism’ in 20th Century Art” at the Museum of Modern Art in 1984.” Artforum 23, no. 3 (November 1984): 54–61.
Meethan, Kevin. “Touring the Other: Buffalo Bill’s Wild West in Europe.” Journal of Tourism History 2, no. 2 (August 1, 2010): 117–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/1755182X.2010.498588.
Mitter, Partha. “Decentering Modernism: Art History and Avant-Garde Art from the Periphery.” The Art Bulletin 90, no. 4 (2008): 531–48.
Oberholtzer, Cath. “Review of Molly Spotted Elk: A Penobscot in Paris, by Bunny McBride.” Ethnohistory 44, no. 1 (1997): 143–44. https://doi.org/10.2307/482906.
Price, Sally, and Jean Jamin. “A Conversation with Michel Leiris.” Current Anthropology, February 1, 1988. https://doi.org/10.1086/203622.
Rabate, Jean-Michel. “Loving Freud Madly: Surrealism between Hysterical and Paranoid Modernism.” Journal of Modern Literature 25, no. 3–4 (June 22, 2002): 58–76.
Rosaldo, Renato. “Imperialist Nostalgia.” Representations, no. 26 (1989): 107–22. https://doi.org/10.2307/2928525.
Savage, William W. “Review of Molly Spotted Elk: A Penobscot in Paris, by Bunny McBride.” The American Historical Review 102, no. 2 (1997): 556–57. https://doi.org/10.2307/2171004.
Becker, Alida. “Books In Brief: Nonfiction; A Native-American In Paris.” The New York Times, October 29, 1995, sec. Books. New York Times Archive.
Simioni, Ana Paula Cavalcanti. “Primitivisms in Dispute: Production and Reception of the Works of Two Brazilian Artists in Paris in the 1920s.” Modernism/Modernity Print Plus, August 23, 2021. https://modernismmodernity.org/articles/simioni-primitivisms-in-dispute.
Stokes, Charlotte. “Surrealist Persona: Max Ernst’s ‘Loplop, Superior of Birds.’” Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art 13, no. 3/4 (1983): 225–34. https://doi.org/10.2307/3780542.
Vizenor, Gerald. “The Ruins of Representation: Shadow Survivance and the Literature of Dominance.” American Indian Quarterly 17, no. 1 (1993): 7–30. https://doi.org/10.2307/1184777.
Books
Aleiss, Angela. Making the White Man’s Indian: Native-Americans and Hollywood Movies. Westport: Praeger, 2005. Internet Archive.
Amaral, Aracy A. Tarsila, Sua Obra e Seu Tempo. 3rd ed. São Paulo: Editora 34, 2003.
Aragon, Louis. "Mars op Vincennes (1931)." In Koloniale inspiratie, edited by Marieke Bloembergen, 234-239. Amsterdam: Brill, 2004. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004489172_040.
———. "De Keerzijde van 1931 (1977)." In Koloniale inspiratie, edited by Marieke Bloembergen, 233-234. Amsterdam: Brill, 2004. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004489172_040.
Bataille, Georges. “The Notion of Expenditure.” In The Bataille Reader, edited by Fred Botting and Scott Wilson, 167-181. Blackwell Readers. Oxford/ Malden: Blackwell, 1997.
Belting, Hans, Andrea Buddensieg, Peter Weibel, and Peter Weibel. The Global Contemporary and the Rise of New Art Worlds. Karlsruhe: ZKM, Center for Art and Media, 2013.
Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. London: Routledge, 2002.
Birnbaum, Phyllis. Glory in a Line: A Life of Foujita: The Artist Caught between East & West. New York: Faber and Faber, 2006. Internet Archive.
Bloembergen, Marieke. “De antikoloniale tentoonstelling, 1883–1932.” In Koloniale inspiratie, 217–23. Amsterdam: Brill, 2004. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004489172_040.
Bogdal, Klaus-Michael. “‘Eine Zigeunerin ist keine Konkurrenz für dich’ Der vergessene französische Filmstar Tela Tchaï/ Martha Winterstein. Eine Spurensuche.” In Ästhetik(en) der Roma, edited by Marina Ortrud M. Hertrampf and Kirsten von Hagen, 185–201. München: Akademische Verlagsgemeinschaft München, 2020.
Bois, W. E. B. Du. The Problem of the Color Line at the Turn of the Twentieth Century. New York: Fordham University Press, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780823254576.
———. The Souls of Black Folk, 1903. Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co. Gutenberg.
Bold, Christine. Vaudeville Indians On Global Circuits, 1880s-1930s, 177–92. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2022. https://doi.org/10.12987/9780300264906.
Bordewich, Fergus M. Killing the White Man’s Indian: Reinventing of Native-Americans at the End of the Twentieth Century. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 1996. Internet Archive.
Bouvet, Vincent, and Gérard Durozoi. Paris, 1919-1939: Art et Culture. Paris: Hazan, 2009.
Breton, André. “The Second Manifesto of Surrealism (1930).” In Manifestoes of Surrealism, translated by Richard Seaver and Helen R. Lane, 117–95. Ann Arbor Paperbacks 182. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972.
______, Roger Caillois, René Char, René Crevel, Paul Eluard, J-M Monnerot, Benjamin Péret, et al. “Murderous Humanitarianism.” In Negro: An Anthology, edited by Nancy Cunard, translated by Samuel Beckett. New York: F. Ungar Publishing Company, 1970.
Bureau, Jacques. “La Mission Dakar-Djibouti (1931-1933).” In Marcel Cohen et ses successeurs ou Cent ans d’études éthiopiennes en France, 11–15. Bulletins de la Maison des études éthiopiennes. Addis Abbeba: Centre français des études éthiopiennes, 2016. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.cfee.524.
Burke, John M. “Buffalo Bill” from Prairie to Palace: An Authentic History of the Wild West, 1893. Gutenberg.
Burns, Emily C. Transnational Frontiers: The American West in France. The Charles M. Russell Center Series on Art and Photography of the American West. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2018.
Clifford, James. The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art. Boston: Harvard University Press, 2021. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674503724.
———. “Mixed Feelings.” In Cosmopolitics: Thinking and Feeling beyond the Nation, edited by Pheng Cheah and Bruce Robbins, 362–70. Cultural Politics Series 14. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1998.
Coleman, William S. E. Voices of Wounded Knee. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. Internet Archive.
Créteur, Pauline. “Etre Une Artiste Étrangère à Paris Dans Les Années 1920.” In Pionnières: Artistes Dans Le Paris Des Années Folles, edited by Camille Morineau and Lucia Pesapane, 40–66. Paris: Musée du Luxembourg Sénat, 2022.
Décoret-Ahiha, Anne. Les danses exotiques en France: 1880 - 1940. Recherches. Pantin: Centre national de la danse, 2004.
Delpuech, André, and Christine Laurière, eds. Les années folles de l’ethnographie: Trocadéro 28-37. Collection archives. Paris: Muséum national d’histoire naturelle, 2017.
Deutch, Miriam, and Jack D. Flam. Primitivism and Twentieth-Century Art: A Documentary History. The Documents of Twentieth Century Art. Berkeley: University of California press, 2003.
Eburne, Jonathan P. “Decolonial Surrealism.” In Surrealism, edited by Natalya Lusty, 342–62. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108862639.020.
Ellingson, Ter. The Myth of the Noble Savage. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520925922.
Eluard, Paul. “Savage Art (1929).” In Primitivism and Twentieth-Century Art: A Documentary History, edited by Miriam Deutch and Jack D. Flam, 209–11. The Documents of Twentieth Century Art. Berkeley: University of California press, 2003.
Ezra, Elizabeth. The Colonial Unconscious. Race and Culture in interwar France, 97–128. New York: Cornell University Press, 2018. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501724046.
Farrington, Lisa E. Creating Their Own Image: The History of African-American Women Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Fawcett, Melissa Jayne. Medicine Trail: The Life and Lessons of Gladys Tantaquidgeon. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2000. Internet Archive.
Foster, Hal. Compulsive Beauty. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1993.
Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. 6th print. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000.
Goldwater, Robert. Primitivism in Modern Art. Primitivism in Modern Art. Harvard University Press, 2013.
Gombrich, E. H. The Preference for the Primitive: Episodes in the History of Western Taste and Art. London/ New York: Phaidon, 2002.
Greenhalgh, Paul. Ephemeral Vistas: The Expositions Universelles, Great Exhibitions and World’s Fairs 1851-1939. Studies in Imperialism. Manchester: Manchester University press, 1988.
Greet, Michele. “‘Exhilarating Exile’: Four Latin American Women Exhibit in Paris.” In Transatlantic Encounters: Latin American Artists in Paris between the Wars, 122–45. Newhaven/ London: Yale University Press, 2018.
———. “For French Eyes: Tarsila Do Amaral’s Brazillian Landscapes.” In Tarsila Do Amaral, Cannibalizing Modernism, edited by Adriano Pedrosa and Fernando Oliva, Revised edition., 116–31. São Paulo: MASP, Museu de Arte de São Paulo Assis Chateaubriand, 2019.
Habermas, Jurgen. “Modernity: An Unfinished Project.” In Habermas and the Unfinished Project of Modernity, edited by Maurizio Passerin d’Entrèves and Seyla Benhabib, 1–38. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997.
Harney, Elizabeth, and Ruth B. Phillips. Mapping Modernisms: Art, Indigeneity, Colonialism. Objects/Histories: Critical Perspectives on Art, Material Culture, and Representation. Durham: Duke University Press, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780822372615.
Hodeir, Catherine, and Michel Pierre. L’exposition coloniale: 1931. Mémoire du siècle 58. Bruxelles: Éditions Complexe, 1991.
Jessup, Lynda, ed. Antimodernism and Artistic Experience: Policing the Boundaries of Modernity. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001.
Junyk, Ihor. Foreign Modernism: Cosmopolitanism, Identity, and Style in Paris. Foreign Modernism. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013. https://doi.org/10.3138/9781442662018.
Kai, Mikkonen. “Out of Europe: The African Palimpsest in Michel Leiris’s L’Afrique Fantôme.” In Narrative Paths: African Travel in Modern Fiction and Nonfiction, 240–65. Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 2015. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/30/oa_monograph/book/38735.
Leininger-Miller, Theresa A. New Negro Artists in Paris: African American Painters and Sculptors in the City of Light, 1922-1934. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2001. Internet Archive.
Leiris, Michel. L’Afrique fantôme: De Dakar à Djibouti, 1931-1933. Paris: Gallimard, 1968.
———. “The Sacred in Daily Life (Le Sacré Dans La Vie Quotidienne), 1938.” In The College of Sociology, 1937-39: 41, edited by Denis Hollier. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987.
Lemke, Sieglinde. Primitivist Modernism: Black Culture and the Origins of Transatlantic Modernism. Oxford /New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Internet Archive.
Lepecki, André. Exhausting Dance: Performance and the Politics of Movement. New York/ London: Routledge, 2006. Internet Archive.
Lifchitz, Deborah. Textes éthiopiens magico-religieux. Paris: Institut D’Ethnologie, 1940. Gallica.
MacDougall, Pauleena. The Penobscot Dance of Resistance: Tradition in the History of a People. Durham: University of New Hampshire Press, 2004. Internet Archive.
Maddra, Sam. Hostiles?: The Lakota Ghost Dance and Buffalo Bill’s Wild West. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2006.
McBride, Bunny. Molly Spotted Elk: A Penobscot in Paris. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997.
McLean, Adrienne, and David Cook. Headline Hollywood: A Century of Film Scandal. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2001. Internet Archive.
McNenly, Linda Scarangella. Native Performers in Wild West Shows: From Buffalo Bill to Euro Disney. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012. Internet Archive.
Mitter, Partha. The Triumph of Modernism: India’s Artists and the Avant-Garde, 1922-1947. London: Reaktion books, 2007.
Morton, Patricia. Hybrid Modernities : Architecture and Representation at the 1931 Colonial Exposition, Paris. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2000. Internet Archive.
Nadeau, Maurice. The History of Surrealism. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989. Internet Archive.
Nochlin, Linda. “Art and the Conditions of Exile: Men/Women, Emigration/Expatriation.” In Art and the Conditions of Exile: Men/Women, Emigration/Expatriation, 37–58. Durham: Duke University Press, 1998. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780822379829-004.
Noland, Carrie. Agency and Embodiment: Performing Gestures/Producing Culture. Agency and Embodiment. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010.
Norindr, Panivong. “3. The ‘Surrealist’ Counter-Exposition: La Verite Sur Les Colonies.” In Phantasmatic Indochina, 52–71. Durham: Duke University Press, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780822379799-005.
Pedrosa, Adriano, and Fernando Oliva, eds. Tarsila Do Amaral, Cannibalizing Modernism. Revised edition. São Paulo, Brazil: MASP, Museu de Arte de São Paulo Assis Chateaubriand, 2019.
Peltier-Caroff, Caroline. “Un Potlatch Au Trocadero. Paul Coze Indianiste Ethnographe.” In Les années folles de l’ethnographie: Trocadéro 28-37, edited by André Delpuech and Christine Laurière, 481–538. Collection archives. Paris: Muséum national d’histoire naturelle, 2017.
Penny, H. Glenn. “Not Playing Indian. Surrogate Indigeneity and the German Hobbyist Scene.” In Performing Indigeneity Global Histories and Contemporary Experiences, edited by Laura R. Graham, 169–205. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2015.
Phillips, Ruth B. “Performing the Native Woman: Primitivism and Mimicry in Early Twentieth-Century Visual Culture.” In Antimodernism and Artistic Experience: Policing the Boundaries of Modernity, edited by Lynda Jessup, 26–50. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001.
Phipps, Peter. “Michel Leiris: Master of Ethnographic Failure.” In Celebrating Transgression: Method and Politics in Anthropological Studies of Cultures, edited by Ursula Rao and John Hutnyk, 183–95. New York/ Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2005. Google Books.
Rentzou, Effie. “The Surrealist World.” In Surrealism, edited by Natalya Lusty, 31–45. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108862639.002.
Rushing, W. Jackson. “TEN Being Modern, Becoming Native: George Morrison’s Surrealist Journey Home.” in Mapping Modernisms: Art, Indigeneity, Colonialism, edited by Ruth B. Phillips, 259-281. Durham: Duke University Press, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780822372615-014.
Said, Edward W. Orientalism. 1st Vintage Books ed. New York: Vintage Books, 1979.
Scee, Trudy Irene. Dancing in Paradise, Burning in Hell: Women in Maine’s Historic Working Class Dance Industry. Camden: Down East Books, 2016. Internet Archive.
Scott, James C. Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts. Domination and the Arts of Resistance. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008. https://doi.org/10.12987/9780300153569.
Sharpley-Whiting, T. Denean. Bricktop’s Paris: African American Women in Paris between the Two World Wars. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2015. Internet Archive.
Silver, Kenneth E. Esprit de Corps: The Art of the Parisian Avant-Garde and the First World War, 1914-1925. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989.
Spies, Werner. Max Ernst - Loplop: The Artist’s Other Self. London: Thames and Hudson, 1983.
Spotted Elk, Molly. Katahdin: Wigwam’s Tales of the Abnaki Tribe and a Dictionary of Penobscot and Passamaquoddy Words with French and English Translations. by Molly Spotted Elk. Northeast Folklore v. 37. Orono: Maine Folklife Center, 2003.
Stansell, Amanda. “Surrealist Racial Politics at the Borders of ‘Reason’: Whiteness, Primitivism and Négritude.” In Surrealism, Politics and Culture. Oxfordshire: Routledge, 2003.
Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky. “Paranoid Reading and Reparative Reading, or, You’re so Paranoid You Probably Think This Essay Is about You.” In Touching Feeling: Affect, Pedagogy, Performativity, 123–51. Durham: Duke University Press, 2003.
Troutman, John W. “Joe Shunatona and the United States Indian Reservation Orchestra.” In Indigenous Pop: Native-American Music from Jazz to Hip Hop, edited by Jeff Berglund, 17–32. Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 2016. Google Books.
Turner, Elizabeth Hutton. American Artists in Paris 1919 - 1929. Studies in the Fine Arts: The Avant-Garde 62. Ann Arbor: Umi research press, 1988.
Tythacott, Louise. Surrealism and the Exotic. London: Routledge, 2003.
Vizenor, Gerald. “4. Native-American Irony: Survivance and the Subversion of Ethnography.” In Race and Cultural Practice in Popular Culture, 76–88. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2018. https://doi.org/10.36019/9781978801349-006.
———. “11. Native-American Narratives: Resistance and Survivance.” In A Companion to American Fiction, 1865-1914, edited by Robert Paul Lamb and Gary Richard Thompson. Blackwell Companions to Literature and Culture. Malden/ Oxford: Blackwell Pub, 2005.
Warren, Louis S. Buffalo Bill’s America: William Cody and the Wild West Show. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. Internet Archive.
Weaver, Jace. The Red Atlantic: American Indigenes and the Making of the Modern World, 1000 - 1927. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014.
Welch, Shay. The Phenomenology of a Performative Knowledge System. New York/ Berlin/ Heidelberg: Springer, 2019.
Wolff, Janet. Resident Alien: Feminist Cultural Criticism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995. Internet Archive.
Chauncey Yellow Robe, “The Menace of the Wild West Show”, 1914. In Legends of Our Times: Native Cowboy Life, edited by Morgan Baillargeon and Leslie Heyman Tepper, 211-212. Vancouver: UBC Press, 1998.
Catalogues
Ades, Dawn, Simon Baker, and Fiona Bradley, eds. Undercover Surrealism: Georges Bataille and Documents. London/ Cambridge: Hayward Gallery/ MIT Press/ Cambridge Press, 2006. Exhibition Catalogue.
Amaral, Aracy A., and Jordi Sanguino. Tarsila Do Amaral. Madrid: Fundación Juan March, 2009. Exhibition Catalogue.
Baldassari, Anne. Picasso Cubiste: Paris, Musée National Picasso. Paris: Réunion des musées nationaux/ Flammarion, 2007. Exhibition Catalogue.
Castro, Maria. “Both Paulista and Parisian: Racial Thinking in A Negra.” In Tarsila Do Amaral: Cannibalizing Modernism, edited by Adriano Pedrosa and Fernando Oliva, 54–67. São Paulo: MASP, Museu de Arte de São Paulo Assis Chateaubriand, 2019. Exhibition Catalogue.
Dubois, Daniel. Paul Coze, Wakanda: archives, collection Daniel Dubois : vente, Paris, Drouot-Richelieu, vendredi 10 avril 2015. Paris: Tessier-Sarrou, 2015. Auction Catalogue.
Labrusse, Rémi. “Miró et Potlatch.” In Joan Miró 1917-1934: La Naissance Du Monde, edited by Agnès De la Beaumelle, 33–50. Paris: Editions Du Centre Pompidou, 2004. Exhibition Catalogue.
Maurer, Evan. “Dada and Surrealism.” In Primitivism in 20th Century Art: Affinity of the Tribal and the Modern, edited by William Rubin, Second volume, 535–94. New York: Museum of modern art, 1985. Exhibition Catalogue.
Peltier-Caroff, Caroline. “Paul Coze, Un Scout Ethnographe Au Musée d’Ethnographie Du Trocadéro.” In Le Scalp et Le Calumet: Imaginer et Représenter l’Indien En Occident Du XVIe Siècle à Nos Jours, edited by Annick Notter and Camille Faucourt, 220–21. La Rochelle/ Paris: Mah! musées d’art et d’histoire de la Rochelle/ Somogy Éditions d’art, 2017. Exhibition Catalogue.
Rubin, William. Primitivism in 20th Century Art: Affinity of the Tribal and the Modern. Second volume. New York: Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), 1985. Exhibition Catalogue.
Conference proceedings
Di Gregorio, Luca. “Wild West France L’évolution de La Réception Française Du Western d’une Tournée de Buffalo Bill à l’autre (1889-1910).” In L’Amérique Au Tournant. La Place Des Etas-Unis Dans La Litterature Française (1890-1920), 57–70. Classiques Garnier, 2020.
Unpublished
Greenaway, Charlotte V. “"Everything gets devoured": sporen van de Frans Surrealistische visie op potlatch in het werk van Beau Dick.” Bachelor’s thesis, KU Leuven, 2022.
Webadresses
Penobscot Nation Museum. “Molly Spotted Elk.” Penobscot Nation Museum. Accessed May 29, 2023. https://www.penobscotculture.com/molly-spotted-elk.
Tate. “Surrealism Beyond Borders: Symposium | Tate Modern.” Tate. Accessed March 28, 2023. https://www.tate.org.uk/whats-on/tate-modern/Surrealism-beyond-borders/….
Haselstein, Ulla. “Ghost Dance Literature: On Recent Debates in Native-American Literary Criticism.” John-F.-Kennedy-Institut für Nordamerikastudien, April 27, 2009. https://www.jfki.fu-berlin.de/information/newsletter/07/jfki_essay.html.
Online archive overviews
Daviau, Monique, Jennifer Hecker, and Catherine Stollar. “Archive overview - William A. Bradley Literary Agency Records (MS-00491), 1909-1982,” 2005. Harry Ransom Center. The University of Texas, Austin. https://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadid=00300.
Sunshine, Louise. “Archive Overview - Yeichi Nimura and Lisan Kay Nimura Papers 1903-2006 [Bulk 1927-1990],” 2011. (S) *MGZMD 194. Jerome Robbins Dance Division. The NY Public Library, New York. https://archives.nypl.org/dan/22251.
Interview
Interview with McBride, Bunny. About Molly Spotted Elk: A Penobscot in Paris, February 19, 2023.
