‘Women’s employment: Shaky or a done deal’
About two years ago, my quest for a Master’s thesis topic began. Encouraged by my peers, parents and friends, I became interested in female labour market participation. Although European women’s involvement in paid labour has now been recognized for several decades, feminists argue that the conditions in which women are being employed still leave much to be desired. As I consider myself to be both a proud member of the female sex and a rather ambitious ‘career hunter’ as I would phrase it, I decided to devote my thesis to this issue.
Equality and discrimination are of pivotal importance when discussing women’s rights. These two concepts however very often get mixed up or even worse - misunderstood. In the first part of my thesis, I have attempted to dispel some of the existing ambiguities. Firstly, equality and discrimination are defined and placed within their proper context. The two subsequent sections demonstrate that discrimination is a tricky concept that can take on several forms. In principle, discrimination against women is legally prohibited. This is not necessarily borne out by the “facts of life and reality”, as is shown in the fourth section. In the first part’s final section, the readers are introduced to the controversial notion of affirmative or positive action.
Part two elaborates on the legal regimes of relevance for female employment. Due to the imposed agenda, I had to restrict myself to two international and two regional regimes. I included the little-known Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women because it is the core United Nations treaty on women’s rights. The International Labour Organization serves as the second international regime. Since my thesis specifically targets European women, the choice for the European Union and the Revised European Social Charter as regional regimes was quite obvious.
Part three of my thesis is undoubtedly also the most important part. Throughout the years, feminists have identified a list of specific work-related issues. Part three tackles most of these issues from a comparative perspective. Included are job opportunities, the pay gap, sexual harassment, part-time work, pregnancy, parental leave and child-care services.
During the first months of the project, my mindset was rather positive. I (naively?) assumed that many of the feminist findings were exaggerated. The more I progressed however, the more this optimism gave way to disappointment. Multiple sources indicate that disturbing practices and trends still persist. The average female worker still earns less than her male counterpart. Women are the primary victims of sexual harassment at work. Female employees are dismissed more often than their male colleagues. Women are underrepresented in positions of authority and responsibility. Career interruption or termination in order to care for young children is still something which is considered mainly by mothers, not by their male partners. Each of the four above-mentioned legal regimes established sets of rules to address trends and practices that are detrimental to women’s employment but the results have so far been mixed. Adverse treatment of female workers continues to be attributable to lasting stereotypes about a woman’s role and place in society. In some cases, the legal regimes successfully battle those stereotypes. In other cases though, it becomes uncomfortably clear that legal provisions alone do not have enough clout or that they even perpetuate detrimental stereotypes.
In conclusion, the sad truth appears to be that - quoting the words of the successful academic Anne-Marie Slaughter - “European women still can’t have it all”.
Bibliography
International and Regional Treaties
Pre-World War II Conventions
- Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Austria, St. Germain-en-Laye, 10 September 1919.
United Nations Conventions
- Charter of the United Nations, 26 June 1945.
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948.
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Conventions adopted by the International Labour Organization
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Treaties adopted by the Council of Europe
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European Union Legislation
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Secondary EU Law
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National Legislation
Federal United States Legislation
- Civil Rights Act of 1964, Public Law 88-352 (78 Stat. 241).
Legislation adopted by Westminster Parliament (United Kingdom)
Sex Discrimination Act 1975, c. 65.
Case-Law
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The UN Human Rights Committee (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights)
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The UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women
- CEDAW, R.K.B. v. Turkey, Communication no. 28/2010, CEDAW/C/51/D/28/2010 (2012).
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The European Committee of Social Rights
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The European Court of Justice
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- ECJ C-149/77, Defrenne III, 1978.
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- ECJ C-75/82 and 117/82, C. Razzouk and A. Beydoun v. Commission of the European Communities, 1984.
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- ECJ C-222/84, Johnston v. Chief Constable of the Royal Ulster Constabulary, 1986.
- ECJ C-111/86, Evelyne Delauche v. Commission of the European Communities, 1987.
- ECJ C-318/86, Commission of the European Communities v. France, 1988.
- ECJ C-227/88, Hoechst AG v. Commission of the European Communities, 1989.
- ECJ C-102/88, M.L. Ruzius-Wilbrink v. Bestuur van de Bedrijfsverenigingen voor Overheidsdiensten, 1989.
- ECJ C-171/88, Ingrid Rinner-Kuhn v. FWW spezial-gebaudereinigung GmbH & Co. KG, 1989.
- ECJ C-5/88, Hubert Wachauf v. Bundesamt fur Ernahrung und Forstwirtschaft, 1989.
- ECJ C-177/88, Elisabeth Dekker v. Stichting Vormingscentrum voor jonge volwassenen (VJV-centrum) plus, 1990.
- Case C-179/88, Birthe Hertz v. Dansk Arbejdsgiverforening, 1990.
- ECJ C-33/89, Maria Kowalska v. Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, 1990.
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- ECJ C-360/90, Arbeiterwohlfahrt der Stadt Berlin v. Monika Botel, 1992.
- ECJ C-173/91, Commission of the European Communities v. Belgium, 1993.
- ECJ C-7/93, Bestuur van het Algemeen Burgerlijk Pensioenfonds v. G.A. Beune, 1994.
- ECJ C-342/93, Gillespie and others v. Northern Health and Social Services Board, 1996.
- ECJ C-421/92, Gabriele Habermann-Beltermann v. Arbeiterwohlfahrt, 1994.
- ECJ C-28/93, Maria van den Akker and Others v. Stichting Shell Pensioenfonds, 1994.
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- ECJ C-444/93, Ursula Megner and Hildegard Scheffel v. Innungskrankenkasse Vorderpfalz, 1995.
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- ECJ C-180/95, Nils Draehmpaehl v. Urania Immobilienservice OHG, 1997.
- ECJ C-1/95, Hellen Gerster v. Freistaat Bayern, 1997.
- ECJ C-100/95, Brigitte Kording v. Senator fur Finanzen Bremen, 1997.
- ECJ C-409/95, Hellmut Marschall v. Land Nordrhein Westfalen, 1997.
- ECJ C-411/96, Margaret Boyle and other v. Equal Opportunities Commission, 1998.
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- ECJ C-167/97, Regina v. Secretary of State for employment, ex parte Seymour-Smith, 1999.
- ECJ C-407/98, Katarina Abrahamsson and Leif Anderson v. Elisabet Fogelqvist, 2000.
- ECJ C-158/97, Georg Badeck and Others v. Hessicher Ministerprasident, 2000.
- ECJ C-17/98, Emesa Sugar NV v. Aruba, 2000.
- ECJ C-270/97, Deutsche Post AG v. Elisabeth Sievers, 2000.
- ECJ C-50/96, Deutsche Telekom AG v. Lilli Schroder, 2000.
- ECJ C-322/98, Barbel Kachelmann v. Bankhaus Hermann Lampe, 2000.
- ECJ C-7/98, Dieter Krombach v. Andre Bamberski, 2000.
- ECJ C-381/99, Susanna Brunnhofer v. Bank der österreichischen Postsparkasse AG, 2001.
- ECJ C-476/99, H. Lommers v. Minister van Landbouw, natuurbeheer en Visserij, 2002.
- ECJ C-320/01, Wiebke Busch v. Klinikum Neustadt GmbH & Co. Betriebs-KG, 2003.
- ECJ C-187/00, Helga Kutz-Bauer v. Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, 2003.
- ECJ C-25/02, Katharina Rinke v. Arztekammer Hamburg, 2003.
- ECJ C-77/02, Erika Steinicke v. Bundesanstalt fur Arbeit, 2003.
- ECJ C-256/01, Debra Allonby v. Accrington & Rossendale College, 2004.
- ECJ C-319/03, Serge Briheche v. Ministre de l’Intérieur, Ministre de l’éducation and Ministre de la Justice, 2004.
- ECJ C-285/02, Elsner-Lakeberg v. Land Nordrhein-Westfalen, 2004.
- ECJ C-519/03, Commission of the European Communities v. Luxembourg, 2005.
- ECJ C-116/06, Sari Kiiski v. Tampereen Kaupunki, 2007.
- ECJ C-194/08, Susanne Gassmayr v. Bundesminister fur Wissenschaft und Forschung, 2010.
- ECJ C-395/08, INPS v. Tiziana Bruno, 2010.
The General Court (European Union)
- GC T-45/90, Alicia Speybrouck v. European Parliament, 1992.
Advocate Generals’ Opinions to the European Court of Justice
- Opinion of Advocate General Tesauro, Eckhard Kalanke v. freie hansestadt Bremen, 6 April 1995.
- Opinion of Advocate General Ruiz-Jarabo Colomer, Tele Danmark A/S v. Handels- og Kontorfunktionærernes Forbund i Danmark, 10 May 2001.
- Opinion of Advocate General Poiares Maduro, S. Coleman v. Attridge Law and Steve Law, 31 January 2008.
The EFTA Court (European Economic Area)
- EFTA Court, E-1/02, EFTA Surveillance Authority v. Norway, 2003.
The United States Supreme Court
- Griggs et al v. Duke Power, 401 U.S. 424 (1971).
- Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57 (1986).
- Beth Ann Faragher v. City of Boca Raton 524 U.S. 775 (1998).
- Burlington Industries Inc. v. Ellerth 524 U.S. 742 (1998).
The California Court of Appeal
- Weeks v. Baker & McKenzie, 63 Cal. App. 4th 1128 (1998).
Other Materials Published by Treaty Bodies
The UN Human Rights Committee (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights)
- ICCPR General Comment no. 18 on Non-Discrimination (1989).
The UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
- CESCR General Comment no. 20 on non discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights (2009).
The UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women
- CEDAW General Recommendation no. 12 on violence against women (1989).
- CEDAW General Recommendation no. 13 on equal remuneration for work of equal value (1989).
- CEDAW General Recommendation no. 19 on violence against women (1992).
- CEDAW General Recommendation no. 23 on women in political and public life (1997).
- CEDAW General Recommendation no. 25 on temporary special measures (2004).
- CEDAW General Recommendation no. 28 on the core obligations of state parties under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (2010).
- CEDAW, Report by the Secretariat on the Committee’s approach to article 4, paragraph 1 of the Convention, CEDAW/C/2001/II/5 (2001).
- CEDAW CO Albania, CEDAW/C/ALB/CO/3 (2010).
- CEDAW CO Algeria, CEDAW/C/DZA/CO/3-4 (2012).
- CEDAW CO Antigua and Barbuda, A/52/38/Rev. 1 (1997).
- CEDAW CO Armenia, CEDAW/C/ARM/CO/4/Rev.1 (2009).
- CEDAW CO Australia, A/52/38/Rev. 1 (1997).
- CEDAW CO Austria, A/55/38 (2000).
- CEDAW CO Austria, CEDAW/C/AUT/CO7-8 (2013).
- CEDAW CO Armenia, A/52/38/Rev.1 (1997).
- CEDAW CO Bangladesh, A/59/38 (2004).
- CEDAW CO Belarus, CEDAW/C/BLR/CO/7 (2011).
- CEDAW CO Belize, A/54/38/Rev. 1 (1999).
- CEDAW CO Canada, A/58/38 (2003).
- CEDAW CO Canada, CEDAW/C/CAN/CO/7 (2008).
- CEDAW CO Croatia, A/53/38 (1998).
- CEDAW CO Columbia, A/54/38/Rev. 1 (1999).
- CEDAW CO Cuba, A/55/38 (2000).
- CEDAW CO Cyprus, A/61/38 (2006).
- CEDAW CO Czech Republic, A/53/38/Rev.1 (1998).
- CEDAW CO Czech Republic, A/57/38 (2002).
- CEDAW CO Czech Republic, CEDAW/C/CZE/CO/3 (2006).
- CEDAW CO Denmark, A/57/38 (2002).
- CEDAW CO Dominican Republic, A/59/38 (2004).
- CEDAW CO Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, CEDAW/C/PRK/CO/1 (2005).
- CEDAW CO Democratic Republic of the Congo, A/55/38 (2000).
- CEDAW CO Estonia, A/57/38 (2002).
- CEDAW CO Fiji, A/57/38 (2002).
- CEDAW CO Finland, A/56/38 (2001).
- CEDAW CO Finland, CEDAW/C/FIN/CO/6 (2008).
- CEDAW CO France, A/58/38 (2003).
- CEDAW CO Germany, A/55/38 (2000).
- CEDAW CO Germany, A/59/38 (2004).
- CEDAW CO Grenada, CEDAW/C/GRD/CO/1-5 (2012).
- CEDAW CO Greece, A/57/38 (2002).
- CEDAW CO Greece, CEDAW/C/GRC/CO/7 (2013).
- CEDAW CO Guyana, A/56/38 (2001).
- CEDAW CO Hungary, A/57/38 (2002).
- CEDAW CO Iceland, A/51/38 (1996).
- CEDAW CO Iraq, A/55/38 (2000).
- CEDAW CO Italy, CEDAW/C/ITA/CC/4-5 (2005).
- CEDAW CO Italy, CEDAW/C/ITA/CO/6 (2011).
- CEDAW CO Jamaica, CEDAW/C/JAM/CO/6-7 (2012).
- CEDAW CO Japan, CEDAW/C/JNP/CO/6 (2009).
- CEDAW CO Jordan, A/55/38 (2000).
- CEDAW CO Jordan, CEDAW/C/JOR/CO/5 (2012).
- CEDAW CO Kazakhstan, A/56/38 (2001).
- CEDAW CO Kuwait, A/59/38 (2004).
- CEDAW CO Kuwait, CEDAW/C/KWT/CO/3-4 (2011).
- CEDAW CO Kyrgyzstan, A/54/38 (1999).
- CEDAW CO Liechtenstein, A/54/38/Rev.1 (1999).
- CEDAW CO Luxembourg, A/55/38 (2000).
- CEDAW CO Luxembourg, A/58/38 (2003).
- CEDAW CO Luxembourg, CEDAW/C/LUX/CO/5 (2008).
- CEDAW CO Malta, A/59/38 (2004).
- CEDAW CO Mexico, A/53/38 (1998).
- CEDAW CO Mexico, A/57/38 (2002).
- CEDAW CO Mexico, CEDAW/C/MEX/CO/7-8 (2012).
- CEDAW CO Mongolia, CEDAW/C/MNG/CO/7 (2008).
- CEDAW CO Montenegro, CEDAW/C/MNE/CO/1 (2011).
- CEDAW CO Myanmar, CEDAW/C/MMR/CO/3 (2008).
- CEDAW CO Netherlands, A/56/38 (2001).
- CEDAW CO Netherlands, CEDAW/C/NLD/CO/5 (2010).
- CEDAW CO New Zealand, A/53/38 (1998).
- CEDAW CO New Zealand, A/58/38 (2003).
- CEDAW CO New Zealand, CEDAW/C/NZL/CO/7 (2012).
- CEDAW CO Nicaragua, A/56/38 (2001).
- CEDAW CO Norway, A/58/38 (2003).
- CEDAW CO Norway, CEDAW/C/NOR/CO/8 (2012).
- CEDAW CO Portugal, A/57/38 (2002).
- CEDAW CO Republic of Korea, A/42/38 (1987).
- CEDAW CO Republic of Korea, A/53/38/Rev. 1 (1998).
- CEDAW CO Republic of Moldova, A/55/38 (2000).
- CEDAW CO Russian Federation, CEDAW/C/USR/CO/7 (2010).
- CEDAW CO Singapore, CEDAW/C/SGP/CO/4 (2011).
- CEDAW CO Slovakia, A/53/38 (1998).
- CEDAW CO Slovenia, A/52/38/Rev. 1 (1997).
- CEDAW CO Slovenia, A/58/38 (2003).
- CEDAW CO Spain, CEDAW/C/ESP/CO/6 (2009).
- CEDAW CO Suriname, A/57/38 (2002).
- CEDAW CO Switzerland, A/58/38 (2003).
- CEDAW CO Switzerland, CEDAW/C/CHE/CO/3 (2009).
- CEDAW CO Togo, CEDAW/C/TGO/CO/6-7 (2012).
- CEDAW CO Trinidad and Tobago, A/57/38 (2002).
- CEDAW CO Tunisia, A/57/38 (2002).
- CEDAW CO Turkey, A/60/38 (2005).
- CEDAW CO Turkmenistan, CEDAW/C/TKM/CO/3-4 (2012).
- CEDAW CO Ukraine, A/51/38 (1996).
- CEDAW CO Ukraine, A/57/38 (2002).
- CEDAW CO Uganda, A/57/38 (2002).
The European Committee of Social Rights
- ESC Conclusions VIII, Dissenting Opinion of Mr. F. Fabricius (1984).
- ESC Conclusions XII-1, Dissenting Opinion of Ms. S. Billum Stegard (1991-1992).
- ESC Conclusions XIII-2, General Introduction (1995).
- ESC Conclusions I, Statement of Interpretation on Article 4(3) (1969).
- ESC Conclusions II, Statement of Interpretation on Article 4(3) (1971).
- ESC Conclusions XIX-4, Austria (2011).
- ESC Conclusions XIII-1, Cyprus (1991).
- ESC Conclusions XVII-2, Czech Republic (2005).
- ESC Conclusions XIX-4, Czech Republic (2011).
- ESC Conclusions XIX-4, Denmark (2011).
- ESC Conclusions XIII-5, Finland (1997).
- ESC Conclusions XIX-4, Germany (2011).
- ESC Conclusions XIII-1, Greece (1991).
- ESC Conclusions XIX-4, Greece (2011).
- ESC Conclusions XVI-2, Hungary (2003).
- ESC Conclusions XIII-2, Italy (1995).
- ESC Conclusions XVII-2, Latvia (2005).
- ESC Conclusions XIX-4, Latvia (2011).
- ESC Conclusions XIII-1, Netherlands (1991).
- ESC Conclusions XIII-5, Netherlands (1997).
- ESC Conclusions XIII-1, Norway (1991).
- ESC Conclusions XIII-2, Norway (1995).
- ESC Conclusions XIII-5, Norway (1997).
- ESC Conclusions XV-2, Poland (2001).
- ESC Conclusions XVII-2, Poland (2005).
- ESC Conclusions XIII-3, Portugal (1995).
- ESC Conclusions XVI-2, Portugal (2003).
- ESC Addendum to Conclusions XV-2, Slovakia (2001).
- ESC Conclusions X-2, Spain (1990).
- ESC Conclusions XVI-2, Spain (2004).
- ESC Conclusions XIX-4, Spain (2011).
- ESC Conclusions XIII-5, Sweden (1997).
- ESC Conclusions XVII-1, Turkey (2004).
- ESC Conclusions XIII-3, United Kingdom (1995).
- ESC Conclusions XV-2, United Kingdom (2001).
- ESC Conclusions XIX-4, United Kingdom (2011).
- RESC Conclusions, Statement of Interpretation on Article 1(2) (2006).
- RESC Conclusions, Statement of Interpretation on Article 8(1) (2011).
- RESC Conclusions, Andorra (2011).
- RESC Conclusions, Armenia (2007).
- RESC Conclusions, Armenia (2011).
- RESC Conclusions, Azerbaijan (2011).
- RESC Conclusions, Belgium (2000).
- RESC Conclusions, Bosnia Herzegovina (2011).
- RESC Conclusions, Bulgaria (2003).
- RESC Conclusions, Bulgaria (2006).
- RESC Conclusions, Bulgaria (2011).
- RESC Conclusions, Cyprus (2012).
- RESC Conclusions, Estonia (2005).
- RESC Conclusions, Estonia (2011).
- RESC Conclusions, Finland (2011).
- RESC Conclusions, France (2003).
- RESC Conclusions, Georgia (2011).
- RESC Conclusions, Hungary (2011).
- RESC Conclusions, Ireland (2011).
- RESC Conclusions, Italy (2012).
- RESC Conclusions, Lithuania (2005).
- RESC Conclusions, Lithuania (2006).
- RESC Conclusions, Lithuania (2012).
- RESC Conclusions, Moldova (2008).
- RESC Conclusions, Netherlands (2008).
- RESC Conclusions, Norway (2005).
- RESC Conclusions Portugal (2011).
- RESC Conclusions, Romania (2002).
- RESC Conclusions, Romania (2003).
- RESC Conclusions, Slovak Republic (2011).
- RESC Conclusions, Slovenia (2003).
- RESC Conclusions, Sweden (2003).
- RESC Conclusions, Sweden (2005).
- RESC Conclusions, Sweden (2011).
- RESC Conclusions, Statement of Interpretation on Article 1(2) (2006).
- RESC Conclusions, Turkey (2011).
- RESC Conclusions, Ukraine (2011).
United Nations Documents
- Prevention of Discrimination; the concept and practice of affirmative action, Final report submitted by Mr. Marc Bossuyt, Special Rapporteur, in accordance with Sub-Commissions resolution 1998/5, E/CN.4/Sub.2/2002/21, 17 June 2002.
- Yakin Erturk, Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, A/HRC/11/6/Add. 5, 27 May 2009, 63 p.
Other Instruments adopted by the International Labour Organization
- Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations, Direct Request on Convention no. 100 on Equal Remuneration, 1951, Lebanon, adopted 2009, published 99th ILC Session (2010).
- Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations, Direct Request on Convention no. 100 on Equal Remuneration, 1951, Syrian Arab Republic, adopted 2008, published 98th ILC Session (2009).
- Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations, Direct Request on Convention no. 111 on Discrimination in Employment and Occupation, Comoros, adopted 2012, published 102nd ILC Session (2013).
- Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations, Direct Request on Convention no. 111 on Discrimination in Employment and Occupation, France, adopted 2011, published 101st ILC Session (2012).
- Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations, Direct Request on Convention no. 111 on Discrimination in Employment and Occupation, Luxembourg, adopted 2012, published 102nd ILC Session (2013).
- Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations, Observation on Convention no. 111 on Discrimination in Employment and Occupation, Bolivia, adopted 2012, published 102nd ILC Session (2013).
- Committee of Experts on the Application of Recommendations and Conventions, General Observation concerning Convention No. 111: Sexual Harassment, adopted 2002, published 91st ILC Session (2003).
- International Labour Conference, General Survey of the Reports on the Equal Remuneration Convention (no. 100) and Recommendation (no. 90), Geneva, International Labour Office, 72nd Session, 1986, 203 p.
- International Labour Conference, Equality in Employment and Occupation: General Survey by the Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations, Geneva, International Labour Office, 75th Session, 1988, 259 p.
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Other Instruments adopted by the Council of Europe and the EU Institutions
The Council of Europe
- Explanatory Report to the Revised European Social Charter, 1996.
The European Union
- Joint Declaration by the European Parliament, the Council and the Commission concerning the protection of Fundamental Rights & the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 5 April 1977, Official Journal C 103 , 27/04/1977 P.
- New Community Action Programme on the Promotion of Equal Opportunities for Women 1982-1985 COM (81) 758 final.
- Council Recommendation 84/635/EEC of 13 December 1984 on the promotion of positive action for women.
- Second Council Resolution of 24 July 1986 on the promotion of equal opportunities for women, 86/C 203/02.
- The Community Charter of Fundamental Social Rights of Workers, 9 December 1989.
- Council Resolution of 29 May 1990 on the protection of the dignity of women and men at work, 90/C 157/02.
- Commission Recommendation of 27 November 1991 on the protection of the dignity of women and men at work, 92/131/ EEC.
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- Communication of the Commission, ‘Incorporating equal opportunities for women and men into all Community policies and activities’, 21 February 1996, COM(96) 67 final.
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- Text of the explanations relating to the complete text of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, Charte 4473/00 Convent 49, 11 October 2000.
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Official Publications
The United Nations
- United Nations, Manual on Human Rights Reporting, Geneva, United Nations Publications, 1997, 520 p.
The International Labour Organization
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- International Labour Office, Achieving Equal Employment Opportunities for People with Disabilities through Legislation: Guidelines, Geneva, International Labour Organization, 2004, 90 p.
- International Labour Office, ABC of women workers’ rights and gender equality, Geneva, International Labour Organization, 2007, 221 p.
- International Labour Office, Equality at work: Tackling the challenges, International Labour Organization, Geneva, 2007, 50 p.
- International Labour Office, Maternity at Work: a review of national legislation, Geneva, International Labour Organization, 2010, 105 p.
- International Labour Standards Department, Eliminating discrimination against indigenous and tribal peoples in employment and occupation: A Guide to ILO Convention No. 111, Geneva, International Labour Organization, 2007, 38 p.
- Jha P. and Golder S., Labour Market Regulation and Economic Performance, Geneva, International Labour Organization, 2008, 71 p.
- McCann D., Sexual Harassment at work: National and international responses, Geneva, International Labour Organization, 2005, 66 p.
- Oelz M., Olney S. and Tomei M., Equal Pay: An Introductory Guide, Geneva, International Labour Organization, 2013, 114 p.
The Council of Europe and the European Union
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- Emmanuelle B. and Rorive I., In search of a balance between the right to equality and other fundamental rights, Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2010, 88 p.
- European Commission, Progress on equality between women and men in 2011, Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2012, 43 p.
- European Commission, Report on equality between women and men, Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2008, 44 p.
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- European Commission, Report on equality between women and men, Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2010, 50 p.
- European Commission, Sexual Harassment at the Workplace in the European Union, Luxembourg, Office of Official Publications of the European Communities, 1999, 233 p.
- European Committee of Social Rights, Digest of the Case Law of the European Committee of Social Rights, Strasbourg, Council of Europe ,2008, 368 p.
- European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, Parental Leave in European companies, Luxembourg, Office of Official Publications of the European Communities, 2007, 51 p.
- European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, Foundations Findings: Childcare services in Europe, Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2009, 20 p.
- European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, Part-time work in Europe - Executive summary, Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union 2011, 2 p.
- European Institute for Gender Equality, Review of the Implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action: Women and the Economy, Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2011, 26 p.
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- European Parliament, Atypical Work in the EU, Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2000, 163 p.
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Websites
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