De Rechter en De Historicus
Onze huidige Westerse maatschappij gaat op zoek naar antwoorden voor de toekomst in het verleden. Het falen van de communistische utopie, de gevaren van een ongebreideld kapitalisme, de uitdagingen van de multiculturele samenleving, de strijd voor het behoud van onze sociale verzorgingsstaat en het uitblijven van nieuwe ideologieën om op die uitdagingen een overkoepelend antwoord te bieden drijven ons collectief ertoe om voor de oplossing van problemen in het heden ons te laten inspireren door het verleden. Die oriëntering op het verleden vertaalt zich in een groeiende populariteit van musea, initiatieven rond erfgoed, herdenkingen van sociale of militaire strijd, het succes van de historische mythologie van het nationalisme en nog zoveel meer socio-culturele fenomenen.
Ondanks de populariteit van het verleden is de aanwezigheid van de historische discipline in deze activiteiten geen evidentie. Integendeel, historici en hun vak kampen met een niet te onderschatten sociaal legitimiteitsprobleem. Deze paradoxale verhouding tussen de populariteit van het verleden en de geringe appreciatie van de historische discipline kunnen omschreven worden als Clio’s moderne paradox. Eén van de meest controversiële ruimtes waarin het verleden en historici hun opwachting maken is de rechtszaal.
Het recht en geschiedenis hebben al sinds de Grieken en Romeinen een innige maar niet onbesproken relatie. De raakvlakken en samenwerking tussen beide kennisvelden zijn alleen maar versterkt na de Tweede Wereldoorlog. Historici worden bijvoorbeeld opgeroepen als expert getuigen om de rechter en de jury in de mogelijkheid te brengen om een historisch gefundeerd oordeel te vormen. Geschiedkundigen zijn actief in internationale tribunalen zoals het Internationaal Strafhof in Den Haag. Daarnaast hebben historici hun opwachting gemaakt in rechtszaken met betrekking tot Holocaustmisdadigers en Holocaustontkenners. Beide categorieën blijven vooral een Europese aangelegenheid. In de Gemenebest landen treden historici op als getuigen in juridische behandelingen van landrechten die de autochtone bevolking werden ontnomen. Ten slotte is de praktijk het best vertegenwoordigd in de Verenigde Staten van Amerika waar historici optreden als expert getuigen in burgerlijke rechtszaken.
Historici getuigen over een brede waaier van onderwerpen in de Amerikaanse rechtbanken gaande van landrechten, waterrechten, historische vervuiling van gronden, stemrechten tot productaansprakelijkheid. Die laatste categorie betreft producten als asbest, loodverf en sigaretten. Rokers spannen sinds de jaren vijftig van de vorige eeuw rechtszaken aan tegen de tabaksindustrie. Consumenten vonden dat ze bedot zijn door de tabaksbedrijven, die ondanks overtuigend wetenschappelijk en medisch bewijsmateriaal van het tegendeel hun producten met baanbrekende marketingtechnieken aan de man bleven brengen. Mede dankzij eigen wetenschappelijk onderzoek dat erop gericht was verwarring te zaaien over de gevaren van roken voor de gezondheid kon de tabaksindustrie ongestraft doorgaan met het verkopen van een dodelijk product.
Doordat het bijzonder moeilijk was voorgaande feiten te bewijzen in de rechtszaal en daarbij rekening houdend met de strategie van de advocatenkantoren die Big Tobacco verdedigden om het persoonlijke, financiële en professionele leven van de aanklagers tot een ware hel te maken werd voor 1986 geen enkele zaak gewonnen tegen de tabaksindustrie. Vanaf de jaren negentig van de vorige eeuw deden historici hun intrede als expert getuigen in tabaksrechtszaken. Tussen 1987 en juli 2013 getuigden 52 historici in 178 rechtszaken. Van die 52 waren er 49 die voor de verdediging getuigden, slechts drie historici getuigden in dienst van de aanklagers. Deze 49 historici hadden enkele karakteristieken gemeenschappelijk. Op één historicus na hadden ze allen geen voorafgaand onderzoek over de geschiedenis van tabak of de sigaret gedaan. Slechts twee van hen geven publiekelijk te kennen dat ze hebben getuigd in tabaksprocessen voor de industrie. Geen van hen allen hebben gepubliceerd over hun juridisch gerelateerd onderzoek. Enkele expert getuigen hebben meer dan een half miljoen dollar verdiend aan hun onderzoek als expert getuige. De getuigen die de industrie verdedigden onderzochten enkel documenten die hen door de advocaten van de tabaksindustrie werden gegeven. In tegenstelling hebben die historici die voor de verdediging hebben getuigd wel voorafgaande publicaties over tabak en zijn zij wel open over hun betrokkenheid als expert getuigen alsook over hun onderzoek.
Uiteindelijk werden de tabaksbedrijven in de loop van het vorige decennium meerdere malen veroordeeld voor de oplichting van het Amerikaanse publiek en het verkopen van schadelijke producten. Deze successen werden niet in het minst bekomen door de resultaten van het historisch onderzoek dat werd gevoerd op basis van de interne archieven van de tabaksindustrie die beschikbaar werden dankzij de tabaksrechtszaken. Ondanks deze vroegere veroordelingen blijven de tabaksrechtszaken doorgaan voor nieuwe individuele gevallen en bovendien kijken andere industrieën, zoals de alcohol of wapen industrie angstig toe hoe het de tabaksindustrie vergaat.
Historici als expert getuigen worden geconfronteerd met veel moeilijkheden en uitdagingen die typerend zijn voor de gehele beweging van de publieksgeschiedenis. Het feit dat historici zich meer en meer in hun professionele hoedanigheid buiten de klassieke muren van de academische burcht wagen betekent niet dat de vaste waarden van gefundeerd historisch onderzoek moeten worden verlaten. Het voorbeeld van de rechtszaken tegen de tabaksindustrie toont net aan hoe een kleine minderheid van historici kan voorkomen, door uitzonderlijk hoogstaand onderzoek, dat de verleidingen van de private markt de historische waarheid niet in het gedrang kunnen brengen. Academische reflectie is bij deze moeilijke evenwichtsoefening van essentiële aard. Vele betrokken historici zijn ook vragende partij voor de opstelling van ethische codes en handelingsvoorschriften die hen de kans bieden op een onafhankelijkere manier van de vraag van een cliënt te kunnen werken. Transparantie en peer review van onderzoek is een tweede belangrijke factor die moet worden nagestreefd.[1]
Jaarlijkse sterven 6 miljoen mensen wereldwijd ten gevolge van roken. Hoewel gestaag minder mensen in het Westen de gewoonte opnemen, zit roken in de lift in grote delen van de wereld. Historici moeten het initiatief nemen om lessen te trekken uit het verleden en uit hun eigen historische praktijk om vanuit het heden antwoorden te bieden voor de toekomst. Een vruchtbare samenwerking tussen academische reflectie en publiekshistorici is de sleutel van een historische discipline die haar legitimiteit terugwint door zich dienstbaar te stellen voor de maatschappij.
[1] Zie de website gemaakt en onderhouden door de auteur: <http://delafontaineramses.wordpress.com/>.
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Deposition of Allan M. Brandt, Ph.D., August 15, 2002, United States of America v. Philip Morris USA Inc., 15/08/2002, p. 360. Bates Number: BRANDTA081502. Accessed via: <http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/elk79a00>, on 29/07/2013.
Deposition of Allan M. Brandt, Ph.D., August 16, 2002, United States of America v. Philip Morris USA Inc., 16/08/2002, p. 282. Bates Number: BRANDTA081602. Accessed via: <http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/dlk79a00>, on 29/07/2013.
Deposition of Peter Calvin English, M.D., Ph.D., August 23, 2002, United States of America v. Philip Morris USA Inc., 23/08/2002, p. 253. Bates Number: ENGLISHP082302. Accessed via: <http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/qqo11b00>, on 29/07/2013.
Plaintiff's Opening Statement, September 21, 2004 [a.m.], United States of America v. Philip Morris USA Inc., 21/09/2004, p. 114. Bates Number: POSDOJ092104AM. Accessed via: <http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/muj79a00>, on 29/07/2013.
United States' Motion in Limine to Exclude Expert Testimony of Peter C. English, May 5, 2004, United States of America v. Philip Morris USA Inc., 05/05/2004, p. 97. Bates Number: USPMUSMOT0505042. Accessed via: <http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/jrp08h00>, on 29/07/2013.
Defendants' Closing Statement, June 8, 2005 [a.m.], United States of America v. Philip Morris USA Inc., 08/06/2005, p. 28. Bates Number: DCSDOJ060805AM. Accessed via: <http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/xik79a00>, on 29/07/2013.
Defendants' Opposition to United States' Motion in Limine to Exclude Expert Testimony of Peter C. English, June 7, 2004, p. 9. United States of America v. Philip Morris USA Inc. Bates Number: USPMDRSP060704. Accessed via: <http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/rap08h00>, on 29/07/2013.
United States' Reply in Support of Motion in Limine to Exclude Expert Testimony of Peter C. English, June 22, 2004, United States of America v. Philip Morris USA Inc., 22/06/2004, p. 9. Bates Number: USPMUSRPLY062204. Accessed via: <http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/tpp08h00>, on 29/07/2013.
Order #614 [Re: United States' Motion in Limine to Exclude Expert Testimony of Peter C. English], July 29, 2004, United States of America v. Philip Morris USA Inc., 29/07/2004, p. 2. Bates Number: USPMORDER072904. Accessed via: <http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/bno08h00>, on 29/07/2013.
Brown & Williamson, “Smoking and Health Proposal.”, s.d., p. 9. Bates Number: 690010951-690010959. Accessed via: <http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/zqy56b00/pdf>, on 29/07/2013.