Vae Victis. De Romeinse stereotypes over de Kelten in een nieuw perspectief

Sam
Bruynooghe

Samenvatting masterscriptie Sam Bruynooghe:

Vae Victis. De Romeinse stereotypes over de Kelten in een nieuw perspectief.

In deze mentaliteitshistorische scriptie biedt de auteur een verfrissende reactie op de erg monolithische en beperkte visie van veel moderne auteurs op het Romeinse beeld over de Kelten tussen de vierde en de eerste eeuw v.C.. Volgens het traditionele paradigma koesterde het gehele Romeinse volk een grote afkeer en angst voor het gehele Keltische volk, ten gevolge van de Keltische verovering van Rome in 390 v.C., en projecteerden de Romeinen zonder uitzondering elk aspect van het Keltische stereotype (alcoholisme, verraderlijkheid, irrationaliteit, ijdelheid, losse zeden e.d.m.) op alle Kelten die ze tegenkwamen. Zelfs de auteurs die de eenzijdigheid hiervan inzien, geven alternatieve modellen niet de plaats die ze verdienen, ten voordele van een zeer reductionistisch model dat geen rekening houdt met Romeinse en Keltische subcategorieën.

De meeste moderne auteurs beperken zich voor hun studie van het Romeinse stereotype over de Kelten op slechts een paar literaire bronnen en sculpturen. De manier waarop ze deze bronnen benaderen is meestal echter gekleurd door de bril van de moderniteit, en levert daarom een constructie op die gebaseerd is op veralgemeningen en misvattingen. Bovendien kan een constructie enkel en alleen op basis van deze schamele bronnen nooit een representatief beeld creëren van de werkelijke Romeinse houdingen ten opzichte van de Kelten. Men mag deze bronnen immers niet isoleren uit hun dynamische contexten: genuanceerde, gelaagde realiteiten die voor ons niet meer toegankelijk zijn maar zeer actueel waren voor contemporaine waarnemers. Daarom integreerde deze benadering een diepgaande studie van de verschillende directe contacten tussen Romeinen en Kelten. De impact van deze contacten, alsook vele aspecten van het literaire en artistieke beeld, worden benaderd vanuit sociaal-psychologische hoek. De auteur is er immers van overtuigd dat men niet aan een correcte sociale geschiedschrijving kan doen zonder een basaal inzicht in de theorieën van antropologie en sociale psychologie, omdat het heden net zo verhelderend kan zijn voor het verleden als omgekeerd. Rome blijkt immers te voldoen aan de criteria die stereotypevorming in de hand werken, maar heeft ook een aantal kenmerken die van deze stereotypes geen stabiele, maar dynamische entiteiten maken.

Ui deze studie blijkt dat, in tegenstelling tot het verouderde paradigma, er niet één, maar vele stereotypes over de Kelten circuleerden bij de Romeinen, die elk hun specifieke invloed hadden op een specifieke groep. In de literatuur was een traditionalistisch beeld opgebouwd, maar dit bleef beperkt tot een literaire constructie en de Romeinen waren zich hier ook bewust van. Bovendien verschilde de representatie van de Kelten van situatie tot situatie en was ze allerminst uitsluitend negatief. Artistieke bronnen mogen niet uit hun specifieke oorlogs-context gelicht worden en vertegenwoordigen slechts een deel van de Romeinse stereotypes over de Kelten. Terwijl literatuur de bron was van stereotypevorming voor de elite, vonden directe contacten vooral plaats tussen Kelten en Romeinen van lagere status. In de Keltische provincies (Gallia Cis- en Transalpina) was er echter ook regelmatig contact tussen de Keltische en Romeinse elites. Deze zorgden ervoor dat het beeld over de Kelten doorheen de tijd onvermijdelijk veranderde, meestal in positieve zin. Keltische handelaars kwamen uit geromaniseerde en bevriende stammen en konden zo het beeld positief beïnvloeden. Gladiatoren bevestigden het beeld over de Kelten, maar koppelden er een positief affect aan. Andere slaven hadden weinig invloed op de beeldvorming, hoewel hier ook uitzonderingen op waren. Terwijl tegenstanders en huurlingen een negatief effect hadden op stereotypes, boden Keltische hulptroepen en vooral gijzelaars een gelegenheid om positievere impulsen te integreren. De belangrijkste vorm van contact was die in de provincies. Het gedwongen delen van hetzelfde territorium zorgde op termijn voor samenwerkingen, uithuwelijkingen, integratie en een positieve aanpassing van het stereotype. De beeldvorming over de Kelten werd daarom niet gedetermineerd door een algemene opvatting of de verovering van Rome in 390 v.C., zoals veel moderne auteurs geloven, maar door specifieke contexten en verwachtingen over specifieke Keltische groepen. De conclusie is dat we moeten vaststellen dat de gangbare voorstelling van “het” Romeinse stereotype in moderne historiografie tekortschiet, en dat we via interdisciplinair onderzoek nieuwe inzichten krijgen op de realiteit van het verleden.  

Bibliografie

Bibliografie

 

 

Sociale psychologie:

 

Aboud (F.E.), “The Development of Prejudie in Childhood and Adolescence”, in: Dovidio (J.F.), Glick (P.) en Rudman (L.A.), eds., On the Nature of Prejudice. Fifty Years after Allport, Blackwell Publishing Ldt, Oxford, 2005, pp. 310-326.

 

Brehms (S.S.), Kassin (S.M.) en Fein (S.),  Soiale Psychologie, Academia Press, Gent, 2006.

 

Brown (R.) en Zagefka (H.), “Ingroup Affiliations and Prejudice”, in: Dovidio (J.F.), Glick (P.) en Rudman (L.A.), eds., On the Nature of Prejudice. Fifty Years after Allport, Blackwell Publishing Ldt, Oxford, 2005, pp. 54-70.

 

Crandall (C.) en Stangor (C.), “Comformity and Prejudice”, in: Dovidio (J.F.), Glick (P.) en Rudman (L.A.), eds., On the Nature of Prejudice. Fifty Years after Allport, Blackwell Publishing Ldt, Oxford, 2005, pp. 295-309.

 

Devine (P.), “Are racial stereotypes really fading? The Princeton Trilogy revisited”, in: Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, vol. 21, nr 11 (1995), pp. 1139-1150.

 

Devine (P.), “Breaking the Prejudice Habit: Allport’s ‘Inner Conflict’ Revisited”, in: Dovidio (J.F.), Glick (P.) en Rudman (L.A.), eds., On the Nature of Prejudice. Fifty Years after Allport, Blackwell Publishing Ldt, Oxford, 2005, pp. 327-342.

 

Dovidio (J.F.), Glick (P. en Rudman (L.A.), “Introduction: Reflecting on The Nature of Prejudice: Fifty Years after Allport”, in: Dovidio (J.F.), Glick (P.) en Rudman (L.A.), eds., On the Nature of Prejudice. Fifty Years after Allport, Blackwell Publishing Ldt, Oxford, 2005, pp. 1-16.

 

Eagly (A.H.) en Diekman (A.B.), “What is the Problem? Prejudice as an Attitude-in-Context”, in: Dovidio (J.F.), Glick (P.) en Rudman (L.A.), eds., On the Nature of Prejudice. Fifty Years after Allport, Blackwell Publishing Ldt, Oxford, 2005, pp. 19-35.

 

Esses (V.M.), Jackson (L.M.), Dovidio (J.F.) en Hodson (G.), “Instrumental Relations Among Groups: Group Competition, Conflict, and Prejudice”, in: Dovidio (J.F.), Glick (P.) en Rudman (L.A.), eds., On the Nature of Prejudice. Fifty Years after Allport, Blackwell Publishing Ldt, Oxford, 2005, pp. 227-243.

 

Fiske (S.T.), “Social Cognition and the Normality of Prejudgment”, in: Dovidio (J.F.), Glick (P.) en Rudman (L.A.), eds., On the Nature of Prejudice. Fifty Years after Allport, Blackwell Publishing Ldt, Oxford, 2005, pp. 36-53.

 

Gaertner (S.L.) en Dovidio (J.F.), “Categorization, Recategorization, and Intergroup Bias”, in: Dovidio (J.F.), Glick (P.) en Rudman (L.A.), eds., On the Nature of Prejudice. Fifty Years after Allport, Blackwell Publishing Ldt, Oxford, 2005, pp. 71-88.

 

Glick (P.), “Choice of Scapegoats”, in: Dovidio (J.F.), Glick (P.) en Rudman (L.A.), eds., On the Nature of Prejudice. Fifty Years after Allport, Blackwell Publishing Ldt, Oxford, 2005, pp. 244-261.

 

Jackman (M.R.), “Rejection or Inclusion of Outgroups?”, in: Dovidio (J.F.), Glick (P.) en Rudman (L.A.), eds., On the Nature of Prejudice. Fifty Years after Allport, Blackwell Publishing Ldt, Oxford, 2005, pp. 89-105.

 

Jones (J.M.), “Mechanisms for Coping with Victimization: Self-Protection Plus Self-Enhancement”, in: Dovidio (J.F.), Glick (P.) en Rudman (L.A.), eds., On the Nature of Prejudice. Fifty Years after Allport, Blackwell Publishing Ldt, Oxford, 2005, pp. 155-172.

 

Kenworthy (J.B.), Turner (R.N.), Hewstone (M.) en Voci (A.), “Intergroup Contact: When Does it Work and Why?”, in: Dovidio (J.F.), Glick (P.) en Rudman (L.A.), eds., On the Nature of Prejudice. Fifty Years after Allport, Blackwell Publishing Ldt, Oxford, 2005, pp. 278-292.

 

Kunda (Z.), Social Cognition. Making Sense of People, The MIT Press, Londen, 1999.

 

Leonardelli (G.J.), Pickett (C.L.), Joseph (J.) en Hess (Y.D.), “Optimal Distinctiveness in Nested Categorization Contexts. Moving From Dueling Identities tot a Dual Identity”, in: Kramer (R.M.), Leonardelli (G.J.) en Livingston (R.W.), eds., Social Cognition, Social Identity, and Intergroup Relations. A Festschrift in Honor of Marilynn B. Brewer, Taylor & Francis Group, New York, 2011, pp. 103-127.

 

Madon (S.), Guyll (M.) e.a., “Ethnic and National Stereotypes: The Princeton Trilogy Revisited and Revised”, in: Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2001, nr. 27, pp. 996-1010.

 

Marshall (E.), “Constructing the Self en the Other in Cyrenaica”, in: Laurence (R.) en Berry (J.), eds., Cultural Identity in the Roman Empire, Routledge, Londen, 2001, pp. 49-63.

 

Meijer (F.), Lessen uit Rome. Vreemdelingen in het Romeinse Rijk en de Europese Unie, Athenaeum – Polak & Van Gennep, Amsterdam, 2011.

 

Moskowitz (G.), Social Cognition: Understanding Self and Others, The Guilford Press, New York, 2005.

 

Mullen (B.) en Leader (T.), “Linguistic Factors: Antilocutions, Ethnonyms, Ethnofhaulisms, and Other Varieties of Hate Speech”, in: Dovidio (J.F.), Glick (P.) en Rudman (L.A.), eds., On the Nature of Prejudice. Fifty Years after Allport, Blackwell Publishing Ldt, Oxford, 2005, pp. 192-207.

 

Newman (L.S.) en Caldwell (T.L.), “Allport’s ‘Living Inkblots’: The Role of Defensive Projection in Stereotyping and Prejudice”, in: Dovidio (J.F.), Glick (P.) en Rudman (L.A.), eds., On the Nature of Prejudice. Fifty Years after Allport, Blackwell Publishing Ldt, Oxford, 2005, pp. 377-392.

 

Roets (A.) en Van Hiel (A.), “Allports Prejudiced Personality Today: Need for Closure as the Motivated Cognitive Basis of Prejudice”, in: Current Directions in Psychological Science 2011, nr. 20, pp. 349-354.

 

Schmid (K) en Hewstone (M.), “Social Identity Complexity. Theoretical Implications for the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations”, in: Kramer (R.M.), Leonardelli (G.J.) en Livingston (R.W.), eds., Social Cognition, Social Identity, and Intergroup Relations. A Festschrift in Honor of Marilynn B. Brewer, Taylor & Francis Group, New York, 2011, pp. 77-125.

 

Sears (D.), “Inner Conflict in the Political Psychology of Racism”, in: Dovidio (J.F.), Glick (P.) en Rudman (L.A.), eds., On the Nature of Prejudice. Fifty Years after Allport, Blackwell Publishing Ldt, Oxford, 2005, pp. 343-357.

 

 

Inleiding, Het stereotiepe stereotype en de “Terror Gallicus”:

 

Bonfante (L.), “Classical and Barbarian”, in: Bonfante (L.), ed., The Barbarians of Ancient Europe, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2011, pp. 1-36.

 

Bradley (K.), Slavery and society at Rome, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1994.

 

Chaplin (J.), Livy’s Exemplary History, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000.

 

Crandall (C.) en Stangor (C.), “Comformity and Prejudice”, in: Dovidio (J.F.), Glick (P.) en Rudman (L.A.), eds., On the Nature of Prejudice. Fifty Years after Allport, Blackwell Publishing Ldt, Oxford, 2005, pp. 295-309.

 

Dauge (Y.A.), Le Barbare. Recherches sur la conception romaine de la barbarie et de la civilization, Latomus, Brussel, 1981.

 

De Vries (J.), La religion des Celtes, Payot, Parijs, 1963.

 

Drinkwater (J.F.), Roman Gaul. The three provinces 58 BC – AD 260. Croom Helm, Londen, 1983.

 

Goudineau (Ch.), Regard sur la Gaule, Editions Errance, Parijs, 1998.

 

Haywood (J.), The Historical Atlas of the Celtic World, Thames and Hudson, Londen, 2001

 

Kahlos (M.), “Who is a Good Roman? Setting and Resetting Boundaries for Romans, Christians, Pagans and Barbarians in the Late Roman Empire”, in: Kahlos (M.), ed., The Faces of the Other. Religious Rivalry and Ethnic Encounters in the Later Roman World, Brepolis, Turnhout, 2011, pp. 259-274.

 

Lendering (J.) en Bosman (A.), De Rand van het Rijk. De Romeinen en de Lage Landen, Athenaeum – Polak & Van Gennep, Amsterdam, 2010.

 

Peyre (C.), La Cisalpine Gauloise du IIIe an Ier Siècle avant J.-C., Presses de l’École Normale Supérieure, Parijs, 1979.

 

Ogilvie (R.M.), A commentary on Livy. Books I-V, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1965.

 

Vitali (D.), De Kelten. Geschiedenis en cultuurschatten van een oude beschaving. Fontaine Uitgevers, Leuven, 2008.

 

Walbank (F.W.), A Historical Commentary on Polybius, Vol. I, Clarendon, Oxford, 1957.

 

Wilcox (P.), Barbarians against Rome. Rome’s Celtic, Germanic, Spanish and Gallic Enemies, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 2000.

 

 

De Auteurs:

 

Allen (S.), Celtic Warrior, 300-100 BC, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 2001.

 

Broughton (R.S.), The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Vol. I en II, Lancaster Press, New York, 1951.

 

Brunt (P.A.), Italian Manpower 225 B.C.-A.D. 14, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1971.

 

Corbeill (A.), “Ciceronian Invectives”, in: May (J.M.), ed., Brill’s Companion to Cicero. Oratory and Rhetoric, Brill, Leiden, 2002, pp. 197-218.

 

Craig (C.), “A Survey of Selected recent Work on Cicero’s Rhetorica and Speeches”, in: May (J.M.), ed., Brill’s Companion to Cicero. Oratory and Rhetoric, Brill, Leiden, 2002, pp. 503-532.

 

Crawford (J.W.), “The lost and Fragmentary Orations”, in: May (J.M.), ed., Brill’s Companion to Cicero. Oratory and Rhetoric, Brill, Leiden, 2002, pp. 305-330.

Cunliffe (B.), “In the fabulous Celtic twilight”, in: Bonfante (L.), ed., The Barbarians of Ancient Europe, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2011, pp. 190-210.

 

Dauge (Y.A.), Le Barbare. Recherches sur la conception romaine de la barbarie et de la civilization, Latomus, Brussel, 1981.

 

Drinkwater (J.F.), Roman Gaul. The three provinces 58 BC – AD 260. Croom Helm, Londen, 1983.

 

Ebel (C.), “Southern Gaul in the Triumviral Period: A Critical Stage of Romanization”, in: The American Journal of Philology, vol. 109, No.4 (1988), pp. 572-590.

 

Edmunds (L.), Intertextuality and the reading of Roman poetry, The John Hopkins University Press, Londen, 2001.

 

Goldsberg (S.M.), Constructing Literature in the Roman Republic, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005.

 

Goudineau (Ch.), Regard sur la Gaule, Editions Errance, Parijs, 1998.

 

Gruen (E.), Rethinking the Other in Antiquity, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2011.

 

Haywood (J.), The Historical Atlas of the Celtic World, Thames and Hudson, Londen, 2001.

 

Henig (M.), Religion in Roman Britain, Batsford, Londen, 1984.

 

Holden (L.), Encyclopedia of Taboos, ABC-CLIO, Oxford, 2000.

 

Hunink (V.), Caesar. Oorlog in Gallië, Salamander Klassiek, Amsterdam, 2009.

 

Johnson (W.A.), Readers and reading culture in the high Roman Empire. A study of elite communities, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2010.

 

Lampinen (A.), “Migrating Motifs of Northern Barbarism: Depicting Gauls and Germans in Imperial Literature”, in: Kahlos (M.), ed., The Faces of the Other. Religious Rivalry and Ethnic Encounters in the Later Roman World, Brepolis, Turnhout, 2011, pp. 199-235.

 

Kassies (W.), Polybius. Wereldgeschiedenis 264-145 v. Chr. Vertaald door Wolther Kassies, Athenaeum-Polak & Van Gennep, Amsterdam, 2007.

 

Keyser (P.), “Greek Geography of the Western Barbarians”, in: Bonfante (L.), ed., The Barbarians of Ancient Europe, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2011, pp. 37-70.

 

Kidd (I.G.), Posidonius II. The Commentary (vol. i en ii), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988.

 

Kidd (I.G.), Posidonius III. The Translation of the Fragments, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988.

 

Koch (J.T.), Celtic Culture. A historical encyclopedia, ABC Clio, Snta Barbara, 2006.

 

Laffranque (M.), Poseidonios D’ Apamée, Presses Universitaires de France, Parijs, 1964.

 

MacMullen (R.), Romanization in the Time of Augustus, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2000.

 

Meijer (F.), lessen uit Rome. Vreemdelingen in het Romeinse Rijk en de Europese Unie, Athenaeum – Polak & Van Gennep, Amsterdam, 2011.

 

Middleton (P.), “The Roman army and long-Distance trade”, In:  Garnsey (P.) en Whittaker (C.R.), eds., Trade and Famine in Classical Antiquitiy, Cambridge Philological Society, Cambridge, 1983, pp. 75-83.

 

Momigliano (A.), Alien Wisdom. The Limits of Hellenization, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1975.

 

Narducci (E.) “Orator and the Definition of the Ideal Orator”, in: May (J.M.), ed., Brill’s Companion to Cicero. Oratory and Rhetoric, Brill, Leiden, 2002, pp. 427-444.

 

Nouwen (R.), Caesar in Gallië, Davidsfonds, Leuven, 2003.

 

Oldfather (C.H.), Diodoros of Sicily III, William Heinemann, Londen, 1952.

 

Powell (T.G.E.), The Celts, Thames en Hudson, Londen, 1980.

 

Quinn (K.), Texts and Contexts. The Roman Writers and their Audience, Routledge, Londen, 1979.

 

Vasaly (A.), “Cicero’s Early Speeches”, in: May (J.M.), ed., Brill’s Companion to Cicero. Oratory and Rhetoric, Brill, Leiden, 2002, pp. 71-112.

 

Walbank (F.W.), A Historical Commentary on Polybius, Vol. I, Clarendon, Oxford, 1957.

 

Watts (B.A.), Cicero. The speeches, William Heinemann LTD, Londen, 1958.

 

Webster (J.), “Linking with a wider World: Romans and “barbarians”, in: Alcock (S.) en Osborne (R.), eds., Classical Archaeology, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, 2007, pp. 401-424.

 

Williams (J.H.C.), Beyond the Rubicon. Romans and Gauls in Republican Italy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2001.

 

Woolf (G.), Becoming Roman. The Origins of Provincial Civilisation in Gaul. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998.

 

 

 

 

Kunst:

 

Allen (S.), Celtic Warrior, 300-100 BC, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 2001.

 

Beard (M.), The Roman Triumph, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 2007.

 

Bienkowski (P.R.), Die Darstellungen der Gallier in der Hellenistischen Kunst, Alfred Hölder, Wenen, 1908.

 

Bloesch (H.), ed. Greek vases from the Hirschmann collection, Hans Rohr, Zürich, 1982.

 

Bonfante (L.), “Nudity as a costume in Classical art”, in: American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 93, No. 4 (1989), pp. 543-570.

Bonfante (L.), ‘Introduction’, in Sebesta (J.L.) en Bonfante (L.), eds., The World of Roman Costume, University of Wisconsin Press, Londen, 2001.

 

Broughton (R.S.), The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Vol. I en II, Lancaster Press, New York, 1951.

 

Clarke (J.R.), Art in the lives of ordinary Romans. Visual representation and non-elite viewers in Italy, 100 B.C. – A.D. 315, University of California Press, Berkeley, 2003.

 

Degrassi (A.), ed., FastiCapitolini, Paravia, Turijn, 1954.

 

Fields (N.), Roman Auxiliary Cavalryman, AD 14-193, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 2006.

 

Fraser (A.D.), “The restoration of the Ludovisi Gaul”, in: American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 36, No. 4 (1932), pp. 418-425.

 

Grant (M.), Roman anniversary issues, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1950.

 

Hartswick (K.J.), The gardens of Sallust. A changing landscape, University of Texas Press, Austin, 2004.

 

Hannestad (N.), Roman art and imperial policy, Aarhus University Press, Aarhus, 1986.

 

Henig (M.), ed. A Handbook of Roman Art, Phaidon Press Ltd, London, 2010

 

Holliday (P.), “Roman Triumphal Painting: Its Function, Development, and Reception”, in: The Art Bulletin, Vol. 79, No. 1 (1997), pp. 130-147.

 

Howard (S.), “The Dying Gaul, Aigina Warriors, and Pergamese Academicism”, in: American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 87, No. 4 (1983), pp. 483-487.

 

Janson (H.W.), History of art, Sixth Edition, Thames and Hudson, Londen, 2001.

 

Isset (V.), The Archaeology of Etruscan Society, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007.

 

Keuls (E.), The reign of the phallus. Sexual politics in classical Athens, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1993.

 

Koch (J.T.), Celtic Culture. A historical encyclopedia, ABC Clio, Snta Barbara, 2006.

 

Momigliano (A.), Alien Wisdom. The Limits of Hellenization, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1975.

 

Östenberg (I.), Staging the world. Spoils, Captives, and Representation in the Roman Triumphal Procession, Oxford University Press, Oxford,2009.

 

Papageorgiadou-Bani (H.), The numismatic iconography of the Roman colonies in Greece. Local spirit and the expression of imperial policy. (Meletèmata 39), Diffusion De Boccard, Parijs, 2004.

 

Pittenger (M.R.P.), Contested Triumphs. Politics, pageantry and performance in Livy’s Republican Rome, University of California Press, Berkeley, 2008.

 

Rankin (D.), Celts and the Classical World, Routledge, Londen, 1987.

 

Smith (R.R.R.), Hellenistic Sculture, a Handbook, Thames and Hudson, Londen, 1991.

 

Smith (W.), ed., Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Taylor, Walton and Maberly, Londen, 1844.

 

Steingräber (S.), “Pergamese influence on Etruscan Hellenistic art”, in: Thomson de Grummond (N.) en Ridgway (B.S.), eds., From Pergamum to Sperlonga: sculpture and context, University of California Press, Berkeley, 2000, pp. 235-254.

 

Vermeulen (F.), Archeologie en kunstgeschiedenis van de klassieke oudheid, universiteit Gent, 2010.

 

Vitali (D.), De Kelten. Geschiedenis en Cultuurschatten van een Oude Beschaving, Davidsfonds, Leuven, 2008.

 

Von Hesberg (H.), “Die Wiedergabe von Kriegsgefangenen und Sklaven in der römischen Bildkunst”, in: Heinen (H.), ed., Antike Sklaverei: Rückblick und Ausblick, Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart, 2010, pp. 179-191.

 

Walbank (F.W.), A Historical Commentary on Polybius, Vol. I, Clarendon, Oxford, 1957.

 

Webster (T.B.L.), Hellenistic Art, Methune, Londen, 1966.

 

 

Contacten:

 

Handel:

 

Adams (C.E.), “Supplying the Roman army”, in: Zeitschrift für Papyrology und Epigraphik, 1995, nr. 109, pp. 119-124.

 

Alföldy (G.), The Social History of Rome, Croom Helm, Kent, 1975.

 

Brogan (O.), “Trade between the Roman Empire and the Free Germans”, in: The Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 26, nr. 2 (1936), pp. 195-222

 

Chadwick (N.), The Celts, Pelican Books, 1970.

 

Charlesworth (M.P.), Trade routes and commerce of the Roman Empire, Cambridge University Press, 1926.

 

Cunliffe (B.), The Celtic World, McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead, 1979.

Cunliffe (B.), Oxford illustrated history of prehistoric Europe, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1997.

Cunliffe (B.), Europe between the oceans. 9000 BC-AD 1000, Yale University Press, 2008.

 

Degrassi (A.), ed., FastiCapitolini, Paravia, Turijn, 1954.

 

Duval (P.M.), La vie quotidienne en Gaule pendant la paix romaine, Librairie Hachette, Poitiers, 1952.

 

Finley (M.), The Ancient Economy, University of California Press, Los Angeles, 1973.

 

Goudineau (C.), “Marseilles, Rome and Gaul from the third to the First century BC”, in: Garnsey (P.), Hopkins (K.) en Whittaker (C.R.), eds., Trade in the ancient economy, The Hogarth Press, Londen, 1983, pp. 76-86.

 

Grénier (A.), Les Gaulois, Payot, Parijs, 1970.

 

Hanson (W.S.), “Forces of change and methods of control”, in: Mattingly (D.), Dialogues in Roman Imperialism, Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series no. 23, Portsmouth, 1997, pp. 67-80.

 

Hatt (J.J.), Celts and Gallo-Romans, Barrie & Jenkins, Londen, 1972.

 

Hilali (A.), “Recherche sur les frontiers de l’ afrique romaine: espaces mobiles et representations”, in: Hekster (O.) en Kaizer (T.), eds., Frontiers in the Roman World, Brill, Leiden, 2011, pp. 97-112.

 

Jones (A.H.M.), “The economic life of the towns of the Roman Empire”, In: Recueils de la Société Jean Bodin, 1955, pp. 161-194.

 

Kehne (P.), “War- and Peacetime Logistics: Supplying Imperial Armies in East and West”, in: Erdkamp (P.), ed., A Companion to the Roman Army, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, 2007, pp. 323-338.

 

Middleton (P.), “The Roman army and long-Distance trade”, In:  Garnsey (P.) en Whittaker (C.R.), eds., Trade and Famine in Classical Antiquitiy, Cambridge Philological Society, Cambridge, 1983, pp. 75-83.

 

Monfort (C.C.), “The Roman military supply during the principate. Transportation and staples.”, In: Erdkamp (P.), The Roman army and the economy, Gieben, Amsterdam, 2002, pp. 70-86.

 

Powell (T.G.E.), The Celts, Thames and Hudson, Londen, 1980.

 

Tchernia (A.), “Italian wine in Gaul at the end of the republilc”, in: Garnsey (P.), Hopkins (K.) en Whittaker (C.R.), eds., Trade in the ancient economy, The Hogarth Press, Londen, 1983, pp. 87-104.

 

Van Dommelen (P.), “Punic persistence: colonialism and cultural identities in Roman Sardinia”, in:Laurence (R.) en Berry (J.), eds., Cultural Identity in the Roman Empire, Routledge, Londen, 2001, pp. 25-48.

 

Van Reeth (A.), Encyclopedie van de mythologie, Tirion, Baarn, 1992.

 

Webster (J.), “Linking with a wider World: Romans and “barbarians”, in: Alcock (S.) en Osborne (R.), eds., Classical Archaeology, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, 2007, pp. 401-424.

 

West, (L.C.), Roman Gaul. The objects of trade, Blackwell Ldt, Oxford, 1935.

 

Whittaker (C.R.), “Trade and Frontiers of the Roman Empire”, in: Garnsey (P.) en Whittaker (C.R.), eds., Trade and Famine in Classical Antiquitiy, Cambridge Philological Society, Cambridge, 1983, pp. 110-127.

 

Wierschowski (L.), Fremde in Gallien – “Gallier” in der Fremde. Die epigraphisch bezeugte Mobilität in, von und nach Gallien vom 1. Bis. 3. Jh. n. Chr., Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart, 2001.

 

Wilcox (P.), Barbarians against Rome. Rome’s Celtic, Germanic, Spanish and Gallic Enemies, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 2000.

 

Woolf (G.), Becoming Roman. The Origins of Provincial Civilisation in Gaul. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998.

 

 

Slavernij:

 

Andreau (J.) en Descat (R.), Esclave en Grèce et à Rome, Hachette Littératures, Parijs, 2006.

 

Binsfeld (A.), “Menschenhandel – Frauenhandel”, in: Heinen (H.), ed., Menschenraub, Menschenhandel und Sklaverei in antiker und moderner Perspektive, Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 2008.

 

Boese (W.E.), A study of the slave trade and the sources of slaves in the roman republic and the early roman empire, University Microfilm International, Michigan, 1973.

 

Bradley (K.), Slaves and Masters in the Roman Empire. A Study in Social Control, Latomus, Doornik, 1984.

Bradley (K.), Slavery and society at Rome, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1994.

 

Brunt (P.A.), Italian Manpower, 225 B.C.-14 A.D., Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1971.

 

Coleman (K.M.), “Valuing Others in the Gladiatorial Barracks”, in: Rosen (R.M.) en Sluiter (I.), Valuing Others in Antiquity, Brill, Leiden, 2010, pp. 419-445.

 

Duff (A.M.), Freedmen in the Early Roman Empire, Heffer and Sons Ltd., Cambridge, 1958.

 

Fitzgerald (W.), Slavery and the roman literary imagination, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000.

 

Gordon (M.L.), “The Nationality of Slaves under the Early Roman Empire”, in: The Journal of Roman Studies, vol 14 (1924), pp. 93-111.

 

Goudineau (Ch.), Regard sur la Gaule, Editions Errance, Parijs, 1998.

 

Hope (V.), “Negotiating identity and status: the gladiators of Roman Nîmes”, in: Laurence (R.) en Berry (J.), eds., Cultural Identity in the Roman Empire, Routledge, Londen, 2001., pp. 179-195.

 

Hopkins (K), Conquerors and Slaves. Sociological Studies in Roman History Volume 1, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1978.

 

Joshel (S.), Slavery in the Roman World, Cambridge University Press, New york, 2010.

 

Lévy-Bruhl (H.), “théorie de l’esclave”, in: Quelques problèmes du très ancient droitromain, Domat- Montchrestien, Parijs, 1934, p. 17.

 

Meijer (F.), Gladiatoren. Volksvermaak in het Colosseum, Athenaeum – Polak & Van Gennep, Amsterdam 2006.

 

Repath (I.), “The Physiognomy of Adamantius the Sophist” en “Anonymus Latinus, Book of Physiognomy”, in: Swain (S.), ed., Seeing the face, seeing the soul. Polemon’s Physiognomy from Classical Antiquity to Medieval Islam, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2007, pp. 487-548 en 549-636.

 

Schmidt (J.), Vie et mort des esclaves dans la Rome antique, ÉditionsAlbin Michel, Parijs, 1973.

 

Solin (H.), “Zur Herkunfst der römischen Sklaven”, in: Heinen (H.), ed., Menschenraub, Menschenhandel und Sklaverei in antiker und moderner Perspektive, Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 2008.

 

Spruit J.E.) en Feenstra (R.), eds., Corpus Iuris Civilis III: Digesta XI-XXIV. Walburg pers, Zutphen, 1996.

 

Tchernia (A.), “Italian wine in Gaul at the end of the republilc”, in: Garnsey (P.), Hopkins (K.) en Whittaker (C.R.), eds., Trade in the ancient economy, The Hogarth Press, Londen, 1983, pp. 87-104.

 

Treggiari (S.), Roman Freedmen during the Late Republic, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1969.

 

Volkmann (H.), Die Massenversklavungen der Einwohner eroberter Städte in der hellenistisch-römischen Zeit, Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, Mainz, 1961.

 

Wiedemann (T.), Greek and Roman slavery, Croom Helm, Londen, 1981.

Wiedemann (T.), Emperors and Gladiators, Routledge, Londen, 1992.

 

Wierschowski (L.), Fremde in Gallien – “Gallier” in der Fremde. Die epigraphisch bezeugte Mobilität in, von und nach Gallien vom 1. Bis. 3. Jh. n. Chr., Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart, 2001.

 

 

Oorlog:

 

Allen (S.), Celtic Warrior. 300 BC-AD 100, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 2001.

 

Bienkowski (P.R.), Die Darstellungen der Gallier in der Hellenistischen Kunst, Alfred Hölder, Wenen, 1908.

 

Chaniotis (A.), War in the Hellenistic World, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, 2005.

 

Drinkwater (J.F.), Roman Gaul. The three provinces 58 BC – AD 260. Croom Helm, Londen, 1983.

 

Fields (N.), Roman Auxiliary Cavalry, AD 14-193, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 2006.

 

Goudineau (Ch.), Regard sur la Gaule, Editions Errance, Parijs, 1998.

 

Hanson (W.S.), “Forces of change and methods of control”, in: Mattingly (D.), Dialogues in Roman Imperialism, Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series no. 23, Portsmouth, 1997, pp. 67-80.

 

Hunink (V.), Caesar. Oorlog in Gallië, Salamander Klassiek, Amsterdam, 2009.

 

Kidd (I.G.), Posidonius II. The Commentary (vol. i en ii), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988.

 

Matthews (J.), “Hostages, philosophers, pilgrims and the diffusion of ideas in the late Roman Mediterranean and Near East”, in: Clover (F.M.) en Humphreys (R.S.), eds., Tradition and Innovation in Late Antiquity, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1989, pp. 29.49.

 

Momigliano (A.), Alien Wisdom. The Limits of Hellenization, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1975.

 

Noy (D.), Foreigners at Rome. Citizens and Strangers, The Classical Press of Wales, Swansea, 2000.

 

Ogilvie (R.M.), A commentary on Livy. Books I-V, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1965.

 

Powell (T.G.E.), The Celts, Thames and Hudson, Londen, 1980.

 

Roymans (N.), “Romanization, cultural identity and the ethnic discussion: the integration of lower Rhine populations in the Roman Empire”, in: Millet (M.), Roymans (N.) e.a., eds., Integration in the early Roman West. The role of culture and ideology, Dossiers d’ Archeology du Musée National d’Histoire et d’Art IV, Luxemburg, 1995, pp. 47-64.

 

Schmidt (J.), Vie et mort des esclaves dans la Rome antique, ÉditionsAlbin Michel, Parijs, 1973.

 

Sekunda (N.), Republican Roman Army, 200-104 BC, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 1996.

 

Steward (R.), Plautus and Roman Slavery, Blackwell and Wiley, Sussex, 2012.

 

Van Katwijk-Knapp (F.H.), Livius. Zonen van Mars. De Geschiedenis van Rome XXI-XXX, Athenaeum-Polak & Van Gennep, Amsterdam, 1997.

 

Walbank (F.W.), A Historical Commentary on Polybius, Vol. I, Clarendon, Oxford, 1957.

 

Wilcox (P.), Barbarians against Rome. Rome’s Celtic, Germanic, Spanish and Gallic Enemies, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 2000.

 

Woolf (G.), Becoming Roman. The Origins of Provincial Civilisation in Gaul. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998.

 

 

Vrede: Provincia:

 

Allen (S.), Celtic Warrior. 300 BC-AD 100, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 2001.

 

Barrett (J.C.), “Romanisation: a critical comment”, in: Mattingly (D.), Dialogues in Roman Imperialism, Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series no. 23, Portsmouth, 1997, p. 51-66.

 

Bowden (W.) “Alien settlers consisting of Romans: identity and built environment in the Julio-Claudian foundations of Epirus in the century after Actium”, in: Sweetman (R.), ed., Roman Colonies in the First Century of their Foundation, Oxbow Books, Oxford, 2011, pp. 101-116.

 

Braund (D.), “Cohors: the governor and his entourage in the self-image of the Roman Republic”, in:Laurence (R.) en Berry (J.), eds., Cultural Identity in the Roman Empire, Routledge, Londen, 2001, p. 10-24.

 

Brunt (P.A.), Italian Manpower 225 B.C.-A.D. 14, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1971.

 

Butler (J.), Gender trouble. Feminism and the subversion of identity, Routledge, Londen, 1999.

 

Charlesworth (M.P.), Trade routes and commerce of the Roman Empire, Cambridge University Press, 1926, p. 209.

 

Dauge (Y.A.), Le Barbare. Recherches sur la conception romaine de la barbarie et de la civilization, Latomus, Brussel, 1981.

 

Drinkwater (J.F.), Roman Gaul. The three provinces 58 BC – AD 260. Croom Helm, Londen, 1983.

 

Ebel (C.), “Southern Gaul in the Triumviral Period: A Critical Stage of Romanization”, in: The American Journal of Philology, vol. 109, No.4 (1988), pp. 572-590.

 

Fields (N.), Roman Auxiliary Cavalryman, AD 14-193, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 2006.

 

Goudineau (Ch.), Regard sur la Gaule, Editions Errance, Parijs, 1998.

 

Haywood (J.), The Historical Atlas of the Celtic World, Thames and Hudson, Londen, 2001.

 

Hanson (W.S.), “Forces of change and methods of control”, in: Mattingly (D.), Dialogues in Roman Imperialism, Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series no. 23, Portsmouth, 1997, pp. 67-80.

 

Hingley (R.), “Resistance and domination: social change in Roman Britain”, in: Mattingly (D.), Dialogues in Roman Imperialism, Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series no. 23, Portsmouth, 1997, p. 81-101.

Hingley (R.), “Cultural diversity and unity: empire and Rome”, In: Hodos (T.) en Hales (S.), Material culture and social identities in the ancient world, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2010, pp. 54-75.

 

Hodos (T.), “Local and global perspectives in the study of social and cultural identities”, In: Hodos (T.) en Hales (S.), Material culture and social identities in the ancient world, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2010, pp. 3-31.

 

Isayev (E.), “Unintentionally Being Lucanian: Dynamics beyond hybridity”, In: Holos (T.) en Hales (S.), Material culture and social identities in the ancient world, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2010, pp. 201-226.

 

Kleiner (F.), “Gallia Graeca, Gallia Romana and the Introduction of Classical Sculpture in Gaul”, in: American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 77, no. 4 (1973), pp. 379-390.

 

Laurence (R.), “Introduction”, in: Laurence (R.) en Berry (J.), eds., Cultural Identity in the Roman Empire, Routledge, Londen, 2001, pp. 25-48.

Laurence (R.), “Territory, ethnonyms and Geography. The construction of identity in Roman Italy”, in: Laurence (R.) en Berry (J.), eds., Cultural Identity in the Roman Empire, Routledge, Londen, 2001, pp. 95-110.

 

Koch (J.T.), Celtic Culture. A Historical Encyclopedia, ABC Clio, Oxford, 2006.

 

MacMullen (R.), Romanization in the Time of Augustus, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2000.

 

Meijer (F.), lessen uit Rome. Vreemdelingen in het Romeinse Rijk en de Europese Unie, Athenaeum – Polak & Van Gennep, Amsterdam, 2011.

 

Noy (D.), Foreigners at Rome. Citizens and Strangers, The Classical Press of Wales, Londen, 2000.

 

Peyre (C.), La Cisalpine Gauloise du IIIe an Ier Siècle avant J.-C., Presses de l’École Normale Supérieure, Parijs, 1979.

 

Pleket (H.W.), “Berufsvereine im Kaiserzeitliches Kleinasien: geselligkeit oder zünfte?”, In: Mauritsch (P.) e.a., eds., Antike Lebenswelten, Harrassovitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, 2008, pp. 533-544.

 

Putzger 5F.W.), Historischer Weltatlas, Cornelsen, Berlijn, 2001.

 

Revell (L.), Roman Imperialism and Local Identities, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009.

 

Roymans (N.), “Romanization, cultural identity and the ethnic discussion: the integration of lower Rhine populations in the Roman Empire”, in: Millet (M.), Roymans (N.) e.a., eds., Integration in the early Roman West. The role of culture and ideology, Dossiers d’ Archeology du Musée National d’Histoire et d’Art IV, Luxemburg, 1995, pp. 47-64.

 

Sweetman (R.), “100 Years of Solitude: colonies in the first century of their foundation”, in: Sweetman (R.), ed., Roman Colonies in the First Century of their Foundation, Oxbow Books, Oxford, 2011, pp. 1-6.

 

Van Dommelen (P.), “Punic persistence: colonialism and cultural identities in Roman Sardinia”, in:Laurence (R.) en Berry (J.), eds., Cultural Identity in the Roman Empire, Routledge, Londen, 2001, pp. 25-48.

 

Van Katwijk-Knapp (F.H.), Livius. Zonen van Mars. De Geschiedenis van Rome XXI-XXX, Athenaeum-Polak & Van Gennep, Amsterdam, 1997.

 

Verboven (K.), “Resident aliens and translocal merchant Collegia in the Roman Empire”, in: Hekster (O.) en Kaizer (T.), eds., Frontiers in the Roman World. Proceedings of the Ninth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Durham, 16-19 April 2009), Brill, Boston, 2011, pp. 335-348.

 

Villard (F.), La céramique grecque de Marseille (VIe-IVe siècle), Éditions de Boccard, Parijs, 1960.

 

Wallac-Hadrill (A.), “The creation and expression of identity: the Roman world”, in: Alcock (S.) en Osborne (R.), eds., Classical Archaeology, Blackwell publishing, Oxford, 2007.

 

West, (L.C.), Roman Gaul. The objects of trade, Blackwell Ldt, Oxford, 1935.

 

Wierschowski (L.), Fremde in Gallien – “Gallier” in der Fremde. Die epigraphisch bezeugte Mobilität in, von und nach Gallien vom 1. Bis. 3. Jh. n. Chr., Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart, 2001.

 

Williams (J.H.C.), Beyond the Rubicon. Romans and Gauls in Republican Italy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2001.

 

Wittke (A-M.), Olshausen (E.) en Szydlak (R.), Historischer Atlas der antiken Welt (Der Neue Pauly Supplemente), Verlag J.B. Metzler, Stuttgart, 2007.

 

Whittaker (D.), “Integration of the early Roman West: The example of Africa”, in: Millet (M.), Roymans (N.) e.a., eds., Integration in the early Roman West. The role of culture and ideology, Dossiers d’ Archeology du Musée National d’Histoire et d’Art IV, Luxemburg, 1995, pp. 19-32.

 

Woolf (A.), “Romancing the Celts. A segmentary approach to acculturation”, in: Laurence (R.) en Berry (J.), eds., Cultural Identity in the Roman Empire, Routledge, Londen, 2001, pp. 111-124.

 

Woolf (G.), “The formation of Roman provincial cultures”, in: Millet (M.), Roymans (N.) e.a., eds., Integration in the early Roman West. The role of culture and ideology, Dossiers d’ Archeology du Musée National d’Histoire et d’Art IV, Luxemburg, 1995, pp. 9-18.

 

Woolf (G.), Becoming Roman. The Origins of Provincial Civilisation in Gaul. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998.

 

 

Download scriptie (27.32 MB)
Universiteit of Hogeschool
Universiteit Gent
Thesis jaar
2013
Promotor(en)
Prof. Dr. Peter Van Nuffelen
Thema('s)