The legal position of inhabited islands submerging due to sea level rise

Anemoon
Soete

Zinkende eilanden

Nooit of te nimmer hield een land zo lang de verbeelding van elk kind en volwassene in greep als het land van neptunusbeelden, gezonken schatten en verwaterde glorie. Het is een land dat Plato omschreef als Atlantis. Vandaag dienen er zich kandidaten aan om het vervolgverhaal van Atlantis de wereld in te sturen. De hedendaagse verhalen hebben echter een minder sprookjesachtige bijklank. Ze ontsproten dan ook niet aan een fantasierijke schrijversgeest, maar aan het fenomeen van klimaatsverandering.

Titanic staten
Klimaatsverandering wordt gelinkt aan voedselschaarste, woestijnvorming, veiligheidsproblemen, verlies van culturele en nationale identiteit, en ook aan een sterk stijgend zeeniveau. Dat laatste wordt zelfs tot een van de meest vaststaande en verregaande gevolgen van klimaatsverandering gerekend volgens het Intergouvernementele Panel inzake Klimaatsverandering van de Verenigde Naties. De gevolgen van klimaatsverandering doen zich globaal voor, maar de ene bevolking en bijhorende staat zal al harder en anders getroffen worden dan de andere. Delen van ons hoogsteigen plat pays of vlakke land komen wel al eens bovendrijven in discussies over een stijgend zeeniveau. Voor andere staten stopt het echter niet bij de mogelijkheid van gedeeltelijke overstromingen. Voor laaggelegen eilandstaten zoals de Maldiven en Tonga waarvan niet enkel een deel, maar nagenoeg de volledige landen slechts één meter boven het zeeniveau reiken, staat het water pas echt aan de lippen.

Als we het wonderlijke Atlantis even buiten beschouwing laten, is het overspoelen van volledige eilandstaten, waardoor deze elk lapje bewoonbaar territorium verliezen, een ongekend fenomeen. Het bezitten van territorium, een permanente bevolking, een overheid en de mogelijkheid om relaties aan te gaan met andere staten zijn volgens de criteria van de Montevideo Conventie van 1933 echter cruciaal om een staat te zijn. Staten bezitten nog steeds de meeste privileges van alle internationale rechtspersonen, waaronder het recht zich economisch belangrijke maritieme zones toe te eigenen. Omwille van die privileges is het belangrijk te weten of een eilandstaat nog een staat kan worden genoemd wanneer deze elk lapje droog land kwijtspeelt aan de omringende zeeën en oceanen.

Het statenclubje voorbijgestreefd
Statenpraktijk leert ons echter dat de Montevideo criteria vele uitzonderingen kennen en meer geschikt zijn voor het ontstaan en niet voor het voortbestaan van staten zoals dat voor de eilandstaten aan de orde is. Om tot de continuïteit van staten te beslissen, wordt het hoog tijd het pakket instrumenten van het internationale recht uit te breiden, zoals dat vaak al in de praktijk gebeurt en waarbij rigide theorie achterwege wordt gelaten. Een dergelijke vervanging van de Montevideo criteria kan worden aangetroffen in de theorie van erkenning. In een notendop biedt deze theorie de onbetwiste, bestaande staten de mogelijkheid een eilandstaat te blijven erkennen als staat, zelfs al heeft die geen bewoonbaar territorium meer. Deze oplossing is echter eentje die niet geschikt zal blijken voor alle gevallen, aangezien deze ertoe kan leiden dat de term staat een hol begrip wordt, zonder werkelijke invloedssfeer. Die uitkomst moet uiteraard ten allen tijde vermeden worden. 

Wanneer het bezitten van bewoonbaar territorium geen optie meer is en de bevolking migreert, kan het label staat na een eventuele transitieperiode geen volwaardige optie meer zijn voor de eilandstaten. Het zou passender zijn deze wel nog te erkennen als internationale rechtspersonen die een beperkter gezag uitoefenen in vergelijking met een staat. Via deze beperkte macht kunnen zij zoals een regering in ballingschap dan nog steeds hulp bieden aan hun over verschillende landen verspreide bevolking. Alzo wordt de huidige bestaande mogelijkheid van ‘staat of geen staat’ verruimd en aangepast aan hedendaagse noden. Een geëvolueerde wereld heeft baat bij geëvolueerde concepten. Zo kunnen in de toekomst concepten zoals ex-staten, halve staten of kwart staten, met elk hun eigen specifieke kenmerken, verwelkomd worden in het vocabularium van het internationaal publiekrecht.

Zandzakjes
Er moet opgemerkt worden dat het niet voor alle eilanden tot zinken hoeft te komen wanneer die eilandstaten er toch in slagen land te behouden. Redding kan gevonden worden in het bouwen van artificiële eilanden, opkopen van land elders of samensmelten met derde staten. Vaak behoren de getroffen eilandstaten echter tot de groep van minst ontwikkelde staten en zullen er geen middelen voorhanden zijn om de nodige maatregelen tijdig te kunnen nemen. Hulp in natura en monetaire hulp van andere landen zijn aan de orde, en in het bijzonder van deze die de bakermat vormden voor het bespoedigen van klimaatsverandering en het stijgende zeeniveau. Zandzakjes alleen zullen het tij niet doen keren. Verzekeringsmechanismes en eeuwigdurende rechtszaken lijken de toren problemen enkel nog hoger te maken. De bestaande fondsen moeten uitgebreid worden en de bedreigde eilandstaten doen er goed aan nu reeds zoveel mogelijk multilaterale overeenkomsten te sluiten om zich te verzekeren van hun plaats in de internationale gemeenschap, het behoud van hun maritieme zones, de continuïteit van hun culturele identiteit en een gestage migratie van hun bevolking.

 

Bibliografie

Bibliography

Conventions and treaties

Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 17 November 1988, 28 ILM 156

African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights of 27 June 1981, 1520 UNTS 217

Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment of 10 December 1984, 1465 UNTS 85

Convention on Biological Diversity of 5 June 1992, 1760 UNTS 79

Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas of 29 April 1958, 559 UNTS 285

Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects of 29 March 1972, 961 UNTS 187

Convention on the Continental Shelf of 29 April 1958, 499 UNTS 311.

Convention on the High Seas of 29 April 1958, 450 UNTS 11

Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness of 30 August 1961, 989 UNTS 175

Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone of 29 April 1958, 516 UNTS 216

Convention relating to the Status of Refugees of 18 July 1951, 189 UNTS 150

International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances of 3 May 1996, 35 ILM 1415 (not in force)

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of 16 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 15 December 1966, 993 UNTS 3

Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change of 10 December 1997, 37 ILM 32

Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States of 26 December 1933, 165 LNTS 19

OECD Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, 1833 UNTS 3

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change of 09 May 1992, 1771 UNTS 107

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change of 9 May 1992, 1771 UNTS 107

Vienna Convention on Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts of 7 April 1983, 22 ILM (1983) 306.

Vienna Convention on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties of 23 August 1978, 1946 UNTS 3

Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 23 May 1969, 1155 UNTS 331

 

National legislation

Australian Senate Hansard 15 (10 October 2005) (Au.)

Migration (Climate Refugees) Amendment Bill 2007, C2007B00149 (Au.)

Seas and Submerged Lands Act 1973 (Act No. 161/1973) (Au.)

---

Niue Constitution Act 1974 (29 August 1974), 1974 No 42 (NZ.)

---

Compact of free association amendments act of 2003 (17 December 2003), 117 stat. 2720 (USA)

 

International case law

Armed Activities on the Territory of Congo case (Democratic Republic of the Congo v Uganda), 2005 ICJ Reports 168

Badinter commission, Opinion 1 of the Arbitration Commission of the Peace Conference on Yugoslavia (29 November 1991), 92 ILR 165

Badinter commission, Opinion 2 on Questions Arising From the Dissolution of Yugoslavia (4 July 1992), 31 ILM 1488

Germano-Polish Mixed Arb. Trib., Deutsche Continental Gas Gesellschaft v. Polish State, Ann. Dig. (5) 1929/30, 11

ICJ, Application of the Conventions of the Prevention and punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro) 2007 ICJ Reports 43

ICJ, Armed Activities on the territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of Congo v Uganda) 2005 ICJ Reports 168

ICJ, Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, Second Phase (Belgium v Spain), 1970 ICJ Reports 3

ICJ, Case concerning East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), 1995 ICJ Reports 102

ICJ, Case concerning military and paramilitary activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), 1986 ICJ Reports 14

ICJ, Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia), 1992 ICJ Reports 24

ICJ, Construction of a road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v Costa Rica), Provisional measures, 13 December 2013, ICJ Reports

ICJ, Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), 1982 ICJ Reports 18

ICJ, Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/United States of America), 1984 ICJ Reports 246

ICJ, Fisheries Case (United Kingdom v. Norway), 1951 ICJ Reports 116

ICJ, Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros (Hungary v Slovakia), 1997 ICJ Reports 7

ICJ, Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy : Greece intervening), 2012 ICJ Reports 99

ICJ, Land and Maritime Boundary Between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria: Eq. Guinea Intervening), 2002 ICJ Reports 303

ICJ, Legal Consequences for States of the continued presence of South Africa in Namibia (Sout West Africa) notwithstanding the Security Council Resolution 276, Advisory Opinion, 1971 ICJ Reports 16

ICJ, Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, 2004 ICJ Reports 136

ICJ, Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, 1996 ICJ Reports 226

ICJ, Legality or Threat of Use of Nuclear Weapons, advisory opinion, 1996 ICJ Reports 227

ICJ, Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v Bahrain), 2001 ICJ Reports 40

ICJ, Maritime Delimitation in the Area between Greenland and Jan Mayen (Denmark v. Norway), 1993 ICJ Reports 38

ICJ, North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Republic of Germany v. Denmark), 1969 ICJ Reports 3.

ICJ, Pulp Mills on the river Uruguay (Argentina v Uruguay), 2010 ICJ Reports 14

ICJ, Regarding the Independence of Kosovo, Advisory Opinion, 2010 ICJ Reports 204

ICJ, Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations, 1949 ICJ Reports 174

ICJ, the Case Concerning the Continental Shelf (Libya v. Malta), 1985 ICJ Reports 13

ICJ, The Corfu Channel Case (U.K. v. Alb.), 1949 ICJ Reports 4 (April 9)

ICJ, Western Sahara Case, Advisory Opinion, 1975 ICJ Reports 12

ITLOS, The “Volga” Case (Russian Federation v. Australia), case no. 11 (2002)

ITLOS, The Mox Plant Case (Ireland v United Kingdom), ITLOS Case No 10 (2001), Separate opinion of Judge Wolfrum

PCIJ, Legal Status of Eastern Greenland (Denmark v Norway), 1933 PCIJ Series A/B No. 53

PCIJ, SS Lotus (France v Turkey) 1927 PCIJ Series A No. 10

PCIJ, The Factory at Chorzow (Germ. v. Pol.), 1928 PCIJ Series A No. 17

Permanent Court of Arbitration, Island of Palmas Arbitration (Netherlands v United States of America) (4 April 1928), 2 RIAA 829

Trail Smelter Arbitration (United States v Canada), III RIAA 1905 (1941)

 

National case law

Supreme Court, Secession of Quebec, (1998), 2 SCR 217 (Ca.)

----

Administrative Court of Cologne, Re Duchy of Sealand (1978), 80 ILR 683 (Ger.)

----

Ioane Teitiota v Chief Executive of Ministry of Business and Innovation and Employment (8 May 2014), NZCA 173 / 2014 (NZ.)

----

Court of International Trade, Tembec Inc. v United States (2006), 441 F. Supp. 2d 130 (USA)

Second Circuit Court, Aguinda v. Texaco, Inc (2002), 303 F.3d 470. (USA)

US District Court NY, Aguinda v. Texaco, Inc. (1993), Dkt. No. 93 Civ. 7527 (USA)

US District Court NY, Chevron corporation v. Steven Donziger (2014), 11 Civ. 0691 (LAK). (USA)

US District Court NY, Jota v. Texaco, Inc. (1994), Dkt. No. 94 Civ. 9266. (USA)

US Supreme Court, United States v. Alaska (1997), 521 U.S. 1 (USA)

 

Reports, resolutions and general documentation of the United Nations

383rd meeting of the Security Council of the United Nations (2 December 1948), UN Doc. S/PV.383 (1948)

Alliance of small island states, Proposal to the AWG-LCA: Multi-Window Mechanism to Address Loss and Damage from Climate Change Impact, UNFCCC, 2008, 8, http://unfccc.int

Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, Regional Training Manuel on Disaster Risk Reduction for Coastal Zone Managers, UNEP, 2009, 59, www.unep.org

Climate Change Secretariat, Climate change: impacts, vulnerabilities and adaptation in developing countries, UNFCCC, 2007, 64, http://unfccc.int

Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons: Summary Record of the Thirty-first Meeting (29 November 1951), UNHCR (1951)

Cristecu, A., The right to self-determination, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/404/Rev.1, (1981)

Cubasch, U., Wuebbles, D., Chen, D., Facchini, M. C., Frame, D.,  Mahowald, N. and Winther, J.-G., 2013: Introduction. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner G.-K., Tignor, M., Allen, S.K., Boschung, J.,  Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., and Midgley, P.M. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, in press

Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (16 June 1972), UN Doc. A/Conf.48/14/Rev. 1(1973)

Espiell, H. G., Special Rapporteur for the Thirty-first session of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities (20 June 1978), UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/405/Rev.1 (1978)

Espiell, H. G., The Right to Self Determination: Implementation of United Nations Resolutions, Study for the Thirty-first session of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities (20 June 1978), UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/405/Rev.1 (1980)

Follow-up to the outcome of the Millennium Summit of the General Assembly of the United States (11 September 2009), UN Doc. A/64/350 (2009)

General Comment No. 14 of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, UN Doc. E/C.12/2000/4 (2000)

Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee, UNFCCC, Fourth session, A/AC.237/Misc.17/Add.9., (1991)

IPCC, 2007: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, [Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J. and Hanson, C.E. (eds.)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 976

IPCC, 2007: Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A. (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 104

IPCC, 2010: Workshop Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Workshop on Sea Level Rise and Ice Sheet Instabilities [Stocker, T.F., Dahe, Q., Plattner, G.-K., Tignor, M., Allen, S., Midgley, P. (eds.)]. IPCC Working Group I Technical Support Unit, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland, 227

IPCC, 2013: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Change [Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.-K., Tignor, M., Allen, S.K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V. and Midgley, P.M. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1535

IPCC, 2014: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., Barros, V.R., Dokken, D.J., Mach, K.J., Mastrandrea, M.D., Bilir, T.E., Chatterjee, M., Ebi, K.L., Estrada, Y.O., Genova, R.C., Girma, B., Kissel, E.S., Levy, A.N., MacCracken, S., Mastrandrea, P.R., and White, L.L. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 32

Janki, M., Indigenous Peoples Rights and the Environment: Issues and the Future, draft paper for UNEP & OHCHR, 2009, www.unep.org

Knox, J., Report of the Independent Expert on the issue of human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment to the Human Rights Council, UN Doc. A/HRC/25/53 (2014)

Limon, M., Linking Human Rights and the Environment, background paper for key issues arising from Human Rights Council Resolution 10/4 and the June 2009 Council debate on the relationship between human rights and the climate change, UNEP, www.unep.org

Ministry of Home Affairs, Housing & Environment, Republic of Maldives, First National Communication of the Republic of Maldives to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2 (2001), http://unfccc.int

Munich Climate Insurance Initiative, Adaptation to Climate Change: Linking Disaster Risk Reduction and Insurance, UNFCCC Climate Talks (June 6, 2009), 2009, 21, http://unfccc.int

New South Wales Young Lawyers (ed.), Human rights and climate change study, Submission to the OHCHR study: Human Rights and Climate Change Sydney: Environmental Law Committee and Human Rights Committee, 2008, 34, www.ohchr.org

PARK, S., Climate change and the risk of statelessness: the situation of low-lying islands, in Legal and protection policy research series, UNHCR Doc. PPLA/2011/04 (May 2011)

Report of the Human Rights Council of the United Nations on its nineteenth session, UN Doc. A/HRC/19/2 (2012)

Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the relationship between climate change and human rights, UN Doc. A/HRC/10/61 (2009)

Report of the open-ended working group to consider options regarding the elaboration of an optional protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights on its second session, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2005/52 (2005)

Report of the Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, UN Doc. A/62/214 (2007)

Report on the Relationship Between Climate Change and Human Rights for the Human Rights Council, UN Doc. A/HRC/10/61, (2009)

Resolution 10/4 of the Human Rights Council (25 March 2009), UN Doc. A/HRC/RES/10/4 (2009)

Resolution 1541 (XV) of the General Assembly of the United Nations (15 December 1960), UN Doc. A/4651 (1960).

Resolution 16/11 of the Human Rights Council of the United Nations (12 April 2011), UN Doc. A/HRC/RES/16/11 (2011)

Resolution 18/22 of the Human Rights Council of the United Nations  (17 October 2011), UN Doc. A/HRC/RES/18/22 (2011)

Resolution 1803 (XVII) of the General Assembly of the United Nations (14 December 1962), UN Doc. A/5217 (1962)

Resolution 1994/27 in the report of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities on its 46th Session (28 October 1994), UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1994/56 (1994)

Resolution 2625 (XXV) of the General Assembly of the United Nations (24 October 1970), UN Doc. A/RES/25/2625 (1970)

Resolution 2869 (XXVI) of the General Assembly of the United Nations (20 December 1971), UN Doc. A/RES/2869 (1971)

Resolution 43/53 of the General Assembly of the United Nations (6 December 1988), UN Doc. A/RES/43/53 (1988)

Resolution 44/225 of the General Assembly of the United States (22 December 1989), UN Doc. A/Res/44/225 (1989)

Resolution 45/197 of the General Assembly of the United States (21 December 1990), UN Doc. A/Res/45/197 (1990)

Resolution 46/215 of the General Assembly of the United States (20 December 1991), UN Doc. A/Res/46/215 (1991)

Resolution 541 of the Security Council of the United Nations (18 November 1983), UN Doc. S/RES/541 (1983)

Resolution 63/281 of the General Assembly of the United Nations (11 June 2009), UN Doc. A/RES/63/281 (2009)

Resolution 7/23 of the Human Rights Council of the United Nations (28 March 2008), UN Doc. A/HRC/7/78 (2008)

Riera, J., Challenges relating to climate change induced displacement, remarks for the International Conference "Millions of People without protection: Climate Change Induced Displacement in Developing Countries", 2013, 7, www.unhcr.org

Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (13 June 1992), UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26 (vol. I) (1992)

Seventh session of the Human Rights Council of the United Nations, UN Doc. A/HRC/7/L.21/Rev.1 (2008)

Statute of the International Court of Justice of 26 June 1945, 1 UNTS 933.

UN Office of the high representative for the least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing states, Small Islands Developing States (SIDS) Statistics, UN-OHRLLS, 2013, 13, http://unohrlls.org

UN Office of the high representative for the least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing states, Small Islands Developing States (SIDS) Statistics, 2013, 26, http://unohrlls.org

UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 10/CP.7, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2001/13/Add.1 (2002)

UNFCCC Decision 1/CP.16, Cancún Agreements: Outcome of work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention, FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1. (2010)

UNHCR, Climate Change and Statelessness: An Overview, Submission to the AWG-LCA 6 under the UNFCCC, 1–12 June 2009, Bonn, 19 May 2009, UNFCCC, 4, http://unfccc.int

UNHCR, Commemorating the Refugee and Statelessness Conventions: a compilation of Summary Conclusions from UNHCR's Expert meetings 2010-2011, UNHCR, 2012, 124, www.unhcr.org

United Nations Division for Sustainable Development, Trends in sustainable development: Small Island Developing States (2010), 39, www.un.org

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Climate Change: Small Island Developing States (2005), 28, http://unfccc.int

United Nations, Charter of the United Nations of 24 October 1945, 1 UNTS XVI (1945)

Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 10 December 1948, UN Doc. A/RES/3/217 A (1948)

Reports of the International Law Commission

Articles on Nationality of Natural Persons in Relation to the Succession of States of the International Law Commission, in Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its Fifty-fourth Session, UN Doc. A/54/10, Chapter IV (1991)

Draft Articles on Prevention of Transboundary Harm from Hazardous Activities, in report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Fifty-Third Session, Supp. No. 10, UN Doc. A/56/10 (2001)

Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, in Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its Fifty-Third Session, Supplement No. 10, UN Doc. A/56/10 (2001) and as adopted in the Resolution 56/83 of the General Assembly of the United Nations of 12 December 2001, and corrected by document A/56/49(Vol. I)/Corr.4

Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its Fifteenth session, (A/5509),  UN Doc. A/CN.4/163 (1999)

Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its First Session, 12 April - 9 June 1949, Supplement No. 10 (A/925), UN Doc. A/CN.4/13 and Corr. 1-3 (1949)

 

Books

Anton, D. K.  and Shelton, D., Environmental protection and human rights, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2011, 986.

Aust, A., Modern Treaty Law and Practice, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2013, 520

Barnett, J. and Campbell, J., Climate change and small island states: Power, Knowledge and the South Pacific, Londen, Earthscan, 2010, 218

Berger, A., Mesinger, F. and Sijacki, D. (eds.), Climate change: Inferences from Paleoclimate and Regional Aspects, Wien, Springer, 2012, 224.

Birnie P., Boyle, A. & Redgwell, C., International Law & the Environment, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2009, 830

Bodansky, D., Brunnee, J. and Hey, E. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of International Environmental Law, Oxford, Oxford Handbooks, 2012, 1112

Bouvier, J. and  Rawle, F., Bouvier’s Law Dictionary and Concise Encyclopedia, online edition, 1856.

Broome, J., Climate matters – ethics in a warming world, New York, W.W. Norton & Company, 2012, 210

Brownlie, I., Principles of public international law, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2008, 784

Bull, H. and Watson, A., Expansion of international society, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1984, 479

Carbone, S. M. and Schiano di Pepe, L., “States, Fundamental Rights and Duties”, in The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, January 2009, online edition

Carlarne, C. P., Climate change law and policy, Wiltshire, Oxford university press, 2010, 350

Cheng, B., General principles of law as applied by international courts and tribunals, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006, 544

Churchill, R. and Freestone, D. (eds.), International law and global climate change, Londen, Graham & Trotman, 1991, 447

Crawford, J. R., “State”, in The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, January 2011, online edition

Crawford, J., Brownlie’s Principles of Public International Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2012, 888

Crawford, J., Pellet,  A and Olleson, S. (eds.), Oxford commentaries on international law: The law of international responsibility, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2010, 1296

Crawford, J., The Creation of States in International Law, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 2006, 498.

Crawford, J., The International Law Commission’s Articles on State Responsibility: Introduction, Text and commentaries, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002, 424

Daes, E. and UNCHR, Status of the Individual and Contemporary International Law, New York, United Nations, 1992, 68

De Chazournes, L. B. and Sands, P. (eds.), International law, the international court of justice and nuclear weapons,  Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999, 592

Douglas, B.C., Kearney, M.S. and Leatherman, S., Sea level rise: history and consequences, San Diego, Academic Press, 2001, 232

Duursma, J., Fragmentation and the International Relations of micro-States: Self-determination and Statehood, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1996, 461

Edenhofer, O., Wallacher J., Lotze-Campen H., Reder M., Knopf B. and Müller J. (eds.), Climate Change, Justice and Sustainability: Linking Climate and Development Policy, Dordrecht, Springer, 2012, 380

Evans, M. (ed.), Aspects of Statehood and Institutionalism in Contemporary Europe, Aldershot, Dartmouth, 1997, 329

French, D. (ed.), Statehood and Self-Determination: Reconciling Tradition and Modernity in International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 2013, 534

Frowein, J., Scharioth, K., Winkelmann, I. and Wolfrum, R. (eds.) Verhandeln für den Frieden, Negotiating for Peace, Berlin, Springer, 2003, 868

Garner, B. A. and  Black, H. C., Black’s Law dictionary, online edition, 2009.

Gerrard, M. B. and Wannier, G. E. (eds.), Threatened Island Nations – Legal Implications of Rising Seas and a Changing Climate, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2013, 639

Grant, T. D., The recognition of states: law and practice in debate and evolution, Westport, Praeger, 1999, 280

Hart, C. A., Climate Change and the Private Sector: Scaling up private sector response to climate change, New York, Routledge, 2013, 296

Held, D., Cosmopolitanism: Ideals and Realities, Cambridge, Polity Press, 2010, 144

Horbach, N., Lefeber, R. and Ribbelink, O., Handboek internationaal recht, Den Haag, T.M.C. Asser Press, 2007, 946.

Hulm, P., A Climate of Crisis: Global Warming and the Island South Pacific, Port Moresby, Association of South Pacific Environmental Institutions, 1989, 22

Humphreys, S. (ed.), Human Rights and Climate Change, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010, 348

Jackson, R. H., Quasi-States: Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Third World, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990, 225

Jackson, R., Sovereignty: The Evolution of an Idea, Cambridge, Polity Press, 2007, 200

Kaczorowska, A., Public international law, Abingdon, Oxon, 2010, 877

Kahler, M. and Walter, B. F. (eds.), Territoriality and conflict in an era of globalization, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006, 340.

Klabbers, J. (ed.), Finnish Yearbook of International Law vol. 14, Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2003, 392

Kogen, M. G., “Territory, Abandonment”, in The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, November 2008, online edition

Kooijmans, P. H. and Brus, M., Internationaal publiekrecht in vogelvlucht, Deventer, Kluwer, 2008, 403

Kosolapova, E., Interstate liability for climate change-related damage, Den Haag, Eleven Publishers, 2013, 228

Kreijen, G., State Failure, Sovereignty and Effectiveness, Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2004, 386

Lagoni, R. and Vignes, D., Maritime delimitation, Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2006, 241.

Lalonde, S., Determining boundaries in a conflicted world: the role of uti possidetis, Montréal, McGill-Queen's University Press, 2002, 347

Lauterpacht, H., Recognition in international law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1947,  442

Leary, D. and Pisupati, B. (eds.), The future of international environmental law, Tokyo, United Nations University Press, 335

Lord, R., Goldberg, S., Rajamani, L., Brunnée, J., Climate change liability, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2012, 685

Malanczuk, P., Akehurst’s modern introduction to international law, New York, Routledge, 1997, 472

Marek, K., Identity and continuity of states in public international law, Geneve, Librairie Droz, 1968, 619

McAdam, J., Climate Change and Displacement: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, Oxford, Hart, 2010, 285

McGarry, J.and Keatin, M. (eds.), European Integration and the Nationalities Question, Oxon, Routledge, 2006, 417

Meiertöns, H., The Doctrines of US Security Policy: An Evaluation under International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010, 330

Nandan, S. N. and Rosenne, S., United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982: A commentary – Volume II, Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff, 1993, 1040

Nordquist, M. H.,  Moore, J. N.,  Soons, A. H. A. and  Kim, H. (eds.), The Law of the Sea Convention : US accession and globalization, Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 575

Nunn, P. D., Developments in Earth and Environmental Sciences: volume 6 - Climate, Environment, and Society in the Pacific during the Last Millennium, Amsterdam, Elsevier, 2007, 316

Nussbaum, A.,  A concise history of the law of nations, New York, Macmillan, 1954,  361

Okafor, O.C., Re-Defining Legitimate Statehood: International Law and State Fragmentation in Africa, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 2000, 232

orakhelashvili, A., Peremptory norms in international law, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2006, 672

Orwell, G., Animal Farm, New York, Harcourt, 1954

Oude Elferink, A. G. (ed.), Stability and Change in the Law of the Sea: The Role of the LOS Convention, Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2005, 250

Oude Elferink, A.G., “Artificial Islands, Installations and Structures” in The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, July 2007, online edition

Parker, A. and Grossman, Z. (eds.), Asserting Native Resilience: Pacific rim indigenous nations face the climate crisis, Corvalis, Oregon University Press, 2012, 240

Philander, S.G., Encyclopedia of global warming and climate change, California, Sage Publications, 2008, 1136

Pomerance, M., Self-Determination in Law and Practice: the new doctrine in the United Nations, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1982

Raič, D. Statehood and the Law of Self-Determination, The Hague, Kluwer Law International, 2002, 495

Rayfuse, R. and Scott, S. V. (eds.), International Law in the Era of Climate Change, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 2012, 378

Ronen Y., “Territory, Lease” in The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, July 2008, online edition

Schofield, C., Lee, S., and Kwon, M.-S. (eds.), The Limits of Maritime Jurisdiction,  Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2013, 794

Schubert, R., Schellnhuber, H.J., Buchmann, N., Epiney, A., Grießhammer, R., Kulessa, M., Messner, D., Rahmstorf, S. and Schmid, J., Climate Change as a Security Risk, London, Earthscan, 2008, 248.

Shaw, M. N., International law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2008, 1708

Shaw, N. and Malcolm, N., International law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2008, 1542

Sinclair, I., The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1984, 150

Symmons, C. R., Historic Waters in the Law of the Sea: A Modern Re-Appraisal, Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2008, 320

Symmons, C. R., Some Problems Relating to the Definition of “Insular Formations” in International Law: Islands and Low-Tide Elevations, Durham, IBRU Maritime Briefing, 1995, 32

Talmon, S., Recognition of governments in international law, 1998, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 393

Tomuschat, C. and Thouvenin, J.-M. (eds.), The Fundamental Rules of the International of the International Legal Order: Jus Cogens and Obligations Erga Omnes Obligations, Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, (2006), 471

Verheyen, R., Climate Change Damage And International Law: Prevention Duties And State, Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2005, 408

Warner, R. and Schofield, C. (eds.), Climate change and the oceans – Gauging the legal and policy currents in the Asia Pacific and beyond, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 2012, 274.

Ziemele, I., “States, Extinction of” in The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, May 2007, online edition

Zimmerman, A., “Continuity of States” in The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, August 2006, online edition.

 

Journal articles

Barnett, J. and Neil, A. W., “Climate Dangers and Atoll Countries”, Climatic change 61 (2003), 321-337.

Bates, D. C., “Environmental Refugees? Classifying Human Migration Caused by Climate Change”, Population and Environment 23(5), 465-477

Berlin, A. H., “Recognition as sanction: using international recognition of new states to deter, punish, and contain bad actors”, J. Int'l L. 31(2) (2009), 531-591

Brubaker, R., “The ‘diaspora’ diaspora”, Ethic and Racial Studies 28(1) (2005), 1-19

Caron, D. D., “When Law makes Climate Change Worse: Rethinking the Law of Baselines in Light of Rising Sea Level”, Ecology L.Q. 17 (1990), 621-653.

Connell, J., “Losing ground? Tuvalu, the greenhouse effect and the garbage can”, Asia Pacific Viewpoint 44(2) (2003), 98-107

Cowen, R. C., “Are Men Changing the Earth's Weather?”, The Christian Science Monitor, 4 December 1957, 1-13

Cox, N., “The Acquisition of Sovereignty by Quasi-States: The case of the Order of Malta”, Mountbatten Journal of Legal Studies 6 (2002), 26-47

Crawford, J., “The Creation of the State of Palestine: Too Much Too Soon?”, EJIL 1(1990), 307-313

Deruytter, T., “Klimaatvluchtelingen: doelloos op zoek naar erkenning. Onderzoek naar nieuw internationaal wetgevend initiatief”, Tijdschrift voor Milieurecht, 2010, 203-224.

DeWitte, C., “At the water's edge: legal protections and funding for a new generation of climate change refugees”, Ocean & Coastal L.J. 16 (2010), 211-238

Dommen, C., “Claiming Environmental Rights: Some possibilities offered by the United Nations' Human Rights Mechanisms”, Geo. Int’l Envtl. L. Rev. 11 (1998), 1-48

Gagain, M., “Climate change, sea level rise and artificial islands: saving the Maldives’ statehood and maritime claims through the ‘constitution of the oceans’”, Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy, vol. 23 (2012), 77-120

Gordon-Clark, M., “Paradise lost? Pacific island archives threatened by climate change”, Archival Science 12 (1) (2012), 51-67

Grant, T. D., “Defining statehood: the Montevideo Convention and its discontents”, 37 Colum. J. Transnat'l L. 1999, 403-457

Higgins, M., “Legal and policy impacts of sea level rise to beaches and coastal property”, Sea Grant Law and Policy Journal 1(1) (2008), 43-64

Institut de Droit International, “Resolutions Concerning the Recognition of New States and New Governments”, The American Journal of International Law 30(4) (1936), 185-187

Jain, A. G., “The 21st century Atlantis: the international law of statehood and climate change-induced loss of territory”, Stan. J. Int’l l. 50(1) (2014), 1-52

Johnson J., Bell, J. and De Young, C., “Priority adaptations to climate change for Pacific fisheries and aquaculture: Reducing risks and capitalizing on opportunities”, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: fisheries and aquaculture proceedings 28 (2013), 109

Kelman, I., “Climate Change and Displacement: Island Evacuation”, Forced Migration Review 31 (2008)

Kolmannskog, V. and Myrstad, F., “Environmental Displacement in European Asylum Law”, EJML 11 (2009) 313–326

Koskenniemi, M., “National Self-Determination Today: Problems of Legal Theory and Practice”, ICLQ 43 (1994), 241-269

Koskenniemi, M., “The future of statehood”, Harvard International Law Journal 32 (1991), 397-410

Lavalle, R., “Not Quite a Sure Thing: The Maritime Areas of Rocks and Low Tide Elevations under the UN Law of the Sea Convention”, Int’l J. Mar.&Coastal L. 19 (2004), 43-69

Mayer, B., “The international legal challenges of climate-induced migration: proposal for an international legal framework”, Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law 22 (2011), 357-416

McDorman? T. L., “The continental shelf beyond 200 nm: law and politics in the arctic ocean”, J. of transnational law & policy 18(2), 155-193

McKinley, M. A., “Conviviality, Cosmopolitan Citizenship, and Hospitality”, Unbound 5 (2009), 55-87

Milne, G. A., Gehrels, W. R., Hughes, C. W. and Tamisiea, M. E., “Identifying the Causes of Sea Level Change”, Nature Geoscience 2 (2009), 471-478

Mimura, N. and Nicholls, R. J., “Regional issues raised by sea-level rise and their policy implications”, Climate Research 11 (1998), 5-18

Mimura, N., “Vulnerability of island countries in the South Pacific to sea level rise and climate change”, Climate Research 12 (1991), 137-143

Naldi, G.J., “The case concerning the frontier dispute (Burkina Faso v Republic of Mali): Uti Possidetis in an African perspective”, International and Comparative Law Quarterly 36(4) (1987), 893-904

Nollkaemper, A., “Internationally Wrongful Acts in Domestic Courts”, The American Journal of International Law 101(4) (2007), 760-799

Nunn, P. D., “Responding to the Challenges of Climate Change in the Pacific Islands: Management and Technological Imperatives”, Climate Research 40 (2009), 211-231

Oliver, S., “A New Challenge to International Law: The Disappearance of the Entire Territory of a State”, Int'l J. on Minority & Group Rts. 16 (2009), 209-243

Orakhelashvili, A., “The Position of the Individual in International Law”, Cal.W.Int'l L.J. 31 (2001), 241-276

Pahuja, S., “The postcoloniality of international law”, Harv. Int'l L.J. 46(2) (2005), 459-469

Paparinskis, M., “Procedural Aspects of Shared Responsibility in the International Court of Justice”, Journal of International Dispute Settlement 4(2) (2013), 295-318

Perritt, H. H., “Structures and Standards for Political Trusteeship”, UCLA Journal of International Law and Foreign Affairs 8 (2009), 385-472

Peters, J., “United States v. Alaska: Section 10 Permits, the Territorial Sea, and Federalism”, Ocean & Coastal L.J. 1 (1994), 59-96

Pfeffer, W. T., Harper, J. T. and O’Neel, S., “Kinematic Constraints on Glacier Contributions to 21st-Century Sea Level Rise”, Science 321 (2008), 1340-1343

Powers, A., “Sea-level rise and its impact on vulnerable states: four examples”, La. L. Rev. 73 (2012), 151-173

Puthucherril, T. G., “Change, Sea Level Rise and Protecting Displaced Coastal Communities: Possible Solutions”, Global Journal of Comparative Law 1 (2013), 1-39

Rignot, E.,  Velicogna, I., van den Broeke, M. R., Monaghan, A. and Lenaerts, J. T. M., “Acceleration of the Contribution of the Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets to Sea Level Rise”, Geophysical Res. Letters 38 (2011), 1-5.

Rodriguez-Rivera, L. E., “Is the Human Right to Environment Recognized Under International Law? It Depends on the Source”, Colo. J. Int'l Envtl. L. & Pol'y 12 (2001), 1-45

Schofield, C., “Shifting limits? Sea levels rise and options to secure maritime jurisdictional claims”, CCLR 3(4) (2009), 405-416

Schreuer, C., “The Waning of the Sovereign State: Towards a New Paradigm for International Law?”, EJIL 4 (1993)

Smith, R. W. and Thomas, B. L., “Island Disputes and the Law of the Sea: An examination of Sovereignty and Delimitation Disputes”, IBRU Maritime Briefing, 2(4) (1998), 1-31

Soons, A. H., “Effects of Sea Level Rise on Maritime Limits and Boundaries”, NILR 37 (1990), 207–232.

Stahl, S., “Unprotected ground: the plight of vanishing island nations”, New York International Law Review 23 (2010)

Stoutenburg, J., “Implementing a new regime of stable maritime zones to ensure the (economic) survival of small island states threatened by sea-level rise”, IJMCL 26(2) (2011), 263-311

Symmons, C., “Ireland and the Rockall dispute: an analysis of recent developments”, IBRU Boundary and Security Bulletin 6(1) (1998), 78-93

Tol, R. S. J. and Verheyen, R., “State responsibility and compensation for climate change damages—a legal and economic assessment”, Energy Policy 32 (2004), 1109-1130

Tosini, S. C., “Foreign Sovereign Standing to Sue the United States in Its Own Courts under the Administrative Procedure Act”, J. Int'l L. 28 (2014), 91-112

Tully, S., “The Contribution of Human Rights as an Additional Perspective on Climate Change Impacts within the Pacific”, N.Z. J. Pub. & Int'l L. 5 (2007), 169-200

Van Dyke, J. and Bennet, D., “Islands and the delimitation of Ocean Space in the South China Sea”, Ocean Yearbook 10 (1999), 54-89

Vermeer, M. and Rahmstorf, S., “Global Sea Level Linked to Global Temperature”, Proceedings of the Nat’l Acad. Sci. 106 (2009), 21527-21532

Voccia, A., “Climate Change: what future for small, vulnerable states”, International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 19(2) (2011), 101-115

Whytock, C. A., “Foreign state immunity and the right to court access”, Boston University Law Review 93 (2013), 2033-2093

Wong, D., “Sovereignty sunk? The position of ‘sinking states’ at international law”, Melbourne Journal of International Law 14 (2) (2013)

Woodroffe, C. D., “Reef-Island Topography and the Vulnerability of Atolls to Sea Level Rise”, Global & Planetary Change 62 (2008), 77-96

 

Papers, essays, theses & general reports

Biagini, B., Dobardzic, S., Christiansen, L., Moore, R., Ortiz-Montemayor, C. and Schinn, D., Financing Adaptation Action: Least Developed Countries Fund, GEF, 2012, 35, www.thegef.org

Bird, N., Brown, J. and Schalatek, L., Climate Finance Policy Brief No.4: Design Challenges for the Green Climate Fund, Overseas Development Institute, 2011, 8, www.odi.org.uk

Boyle, A., Human Rights and the Environment: a Reassessment, Working Paper for UNEP (2010), 39, www.law.ed.ac.uk

Carius, A. and Maas, A. Migration and global environmental change, PD15: creating space for action: options for small island states to cope with global environmental change, document in preparation of the UK Government’s Foresight Project, Migration and Global Environmental Change, 2011

de Moor, N., International environmental law and migration: fitting the bill?, unpublished paper for the 10th Annual Colloquium of the IUCN Academy of Environmental law on “Global Environmental Law at a Crossroads”, 38

European Network of Environmental Law Organizations, Implementation of the Environmental Impact Assessment Directive in the EU: Member States Case law examples from the practice of the European environmental impact assessment litigation, Justice and Environment, 2013, 50, www.justiceandenvironment.org

Ferris, E., Cernea, M. M. and Petz, D., On the front line of climate change: learning from and with pacific countries, Project on Internal Displacement, Washington D.C., The Brookings Institution – London School of Economics, 2011, 32

G. Tsaltas, T. Bourtzis and G. Rodotheatos, Artificial islands and structures as a means of safeguarding state sovereignty against sea level rise. A law of the sea perspective, document in preparation of the 6th ABLOS Conference "Contentious Issues in LOSC - Surely Not?", 2010

Global Conference on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands, Global oceans conference 2010: ensuring survival, preserving life, improving governance: summary report, 2010, 52, http://globaloceanforumdotcom.files.wordpress.com

Hall, E., Vanuatu Village Relocated due to Rising Sea Levels, ABC News, 6 December 2005, www.abc.net.au

Hayashi, M., “Sea Level Rise and the Law of the Sea: Legal and Policy Options”, in Terashima, H., (ed.), Proceedings of the International Symposium on Islands and Oceans, 2009, 160, www.sof.or.jp

Hunter, D. B., The Implications of Climate Change Litigation for International Environmental Law-Making, American University Washington College of Law, Working Paper No. 2008–14, 19

Kälin, W., “Conceptualising Climate Induced Displacement – A challenge for International Law”, Distinguished Lecture series 3, Maharniban Calcutta Research Group, March 2011, 38

Mcadam, J., ‘Disappearing states’, statelessness and the boundaries of international law, unpublished paper, University of New South Wales Faculty of Law Research Series, 2010, 23

Mutabdzija, D. and Borders, M., Charting the course: toward a seasteading legal strategy, unpublished paper for The Seasteading Institute, 2011, 34, www.seasteading.org

Oxfam International, Adapting to Climate Change, What is needed in poor countries and who should pay, Oxfam Briefing Paper, May 2007, 47

Rayfuse R., W(h)ither Tuvalu? International law and disappearing states, unpublished paper, University of New South Wales Faculty of Law Research Series, 2010, 13

Rayfuse, R. and Crawford, E., Climate Change, Sovereignty and Statehood, Legal Studies Research Paper No. 11/59, University of Sydney, September 2011, 13.

Territorium, Oxford Dictionaries, www.oxforddictionaries.com

Tuvalu, IMF Country Report No. 12/259, International Monetary Fund, September 2012, 21, www.imf.org

Verheyen R. and Roderick, P., Beyond adaptation: The legal duty to pay compensation for climate change damage, WWF-UK Climate Change Programme Discussion Paper November 2008, 37, http://assets.wwf.org.uk

Wei, D., Dawes, R. and Maxwell, I., Receding maritime zones, uninhabitable states and climate exiles: how international law must adapt to climate change, unpublished paper for FIELD, 2011, 9, www.field.org.uk

 

Digital sources

“If we fail our environment, we fail to protect our human rights,” warn UN experts on Earth Day, OHCHR, 22 April 2013, www.ohchr.org

960 years of history, Order of Malta, www.orderofmalta.int

A sooner Spring and a later Autumn suggests the new normal, News release University of Southampton, 28 March 2014, www.southampton.ac.uk

About Climate Funds, Climate Funds Update, www.climatefundsupdate.org

Burke, T., Events, dear boy, events have put climate change back on the agenda, The Guardian, 26 March 2014, www.theguardian.com

C. Krauss, Patton Bogg settles dispute with Chevron over pollution case, New York Times, 7 May 2014, www.nytimes.com

Canada pulls out of Kyoto protocol, The Guardian, 13 December 2012, www.theguardian.com

Climate Action, European Commission, http://ec.europa.eu

Climate Change, Australian Government: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, http://aid.dfat.gov.au

Declarations by Parties - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, UNFCCC, https://unfccc.int

Declarations Recognizing the Jurisdiction of the Court as Compulsory, ICJ, www.icj-cij.org

Environmental change and forced migration scenarios: Tuvalu and New-Zealand, EACH, 2007, 32, www.ehs.unu.edu

Estimates of 2013: “Population (Total)”,The World Bank, 2013, http://data.worldbank.org

Fiji Supports Kiribati On Sea Level Rise, Office of the President Republic of Kiribati – Climate Change, 11 February 2014, www.climate.gov.ki

Financial resources and technology transfer, NZ Ministry for the Environment, www.mfe.govt.nz

For Island Nations Threatened by Climate Change, Conference Outlines Their Legal Remedies, Columbia Law School, 23 May 2011, www.law.columbia.edu

Frequently Asked Questions about Ocean Acidification, Woodshole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI), www.whoi.edu

Friedman, L., If a country sinks beneath the sea, is it still a country?, Scientific American, 23 August 2010, www.scientificamerican.com

Global Private Financial Flows, World Development Indicators, http://wdi.worldbank.org

Glossary of statistical terms: Environmental Refugee, OECD, http://stats.oecd.org

Government land purchase within grasp, Office of the President Republic of Kiribati – Climate Change, 23 August 2013, www.climate.gov.ki

Growth in United Nations membership: 1945-present, United Nations, www.un.org

Harris, G., Borrowed Time on Disappearing Land: Facing Rising Seas, Bangladesh Confronts the Consequences of Climate Change, The New York Times, 28 March 2014, www.nytimes.com

Hausfather, Z., IPCC’s New Estimates for Increased Sea-Level Rise, The Yale Forum on Climate Change & the Media, Yale Climate Forum, 23 October 2013, www.yaleclimatemediaforum.org

History of Sealand, Sealand, www.sealandgov.org

Human rights key to climate change negotiations, UNHCR, 17 June 2009, www.ohchr.org

Indonesia's rent-an-island answer to climate change, ABC News, 3 June 2009, www.abc.net.au

Inuit Circumpolar Conference, Center for International Environmental Law & Earthjustice, Petition to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Seeking Relief from Violations Resulting from Global Warming Caused by Acts and Omissions of the United States, Inuit Circumpolar, 7 December 2005, www.inuitcircumpolar.com

IPCC, Media Centre, IPCC, www.ipcc.ch

John Knox, Independent Expert on human rights and the environment, OHCHR, www.ohchr.org

Kyoto Protocol, UNFCCC, https://unfccc.int

Long-term climate changes and their effects, Cabinet Office file ref CAB 163/272 #122885, UK National Archives, 1970, www.nationalarchives.gov.uk

Maritime Space: Maritime Zones and Maritime Delimitation, UN, www.un.org

Mission, Order of Malta, www.orderofmalta.int

Moceica, S., Kiribati’s hunt for land, The Fiji Times, 3 maart 2012, www.fijitimes.com

New Zealand's immigration relationship with Tuvalu, New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, www.mfat.govt.nz

New Zealand's immigration relationship with Tuvalu, New Zealand Ministry for the Environment, 19 December 2013, www.mfat.govt.nz

Press Conference on Request for International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion on Climate Change, UN, 3 February 2012, www.un.org

Reeling from Impacts of Global Warming, Small Island States Urge General Assembly to Take Comprehensive Action, UN News, 25 September 2008, www.un.org

Republic of Maldives, National Adaptation Plan of Action, SIDS, 2006, 50, www.sids2014.org

Risk Management Approaches to Address Adverse Effects of Climate Change – Insurance, UNFCCC, http://unfccc.int

Saeed, A., From underwater, Maldives sends warning on climate change, CNN, 17 October 2009, http://edition.cnn.com

Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, Latest Statements: Dhaka, Bangladesh, 14 November 2011 - Secretary-General's remarks at opening of Climate Vulnerable Forum, United Nations, 14 November 2011, www.un.org

Small island nations’ survival threatened by climate change, UN hears, UN News Centre, 25 September 2008, www.un.org

Spencer, R., The World is sinking: Dubai islands 'falling into the sea', The Telegraph, 20 January 2011, www.telegraph.co.uk

Stateless People, UNHCR, www.unhcr.org

The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, www.cia.gov

The World Factbook: Tonga, Central Intelligence Agency, www.cia.gov

Tibet in Exile, The Central Tibetan Administration: restoring freedom for Tibetans, http://tibet.net

WRI’s Climate Data Explorer,  World Resources Institute, http://cait2.wri.org

Yardley, J., Tibetan Exiles Elect Scholar as New Prime Minister, The New York Times, 27 April 2011, www.nytimes.com

 

Pictures

Isaac Cordal, Follow the leader, Isaac Cordal, http://cementeclipses.com/works

Universiteitsstraat, World under Water, http://worldunderwater.org/#

Universiteit of Hogeschool
Universiteit Gent
Thesis jaar
2014