The tension between freedom of information and the security of the European Union and its organs
TRANSPARANTIE IN EEN WERELD VAN GEHEIMHOUDING
"The only sure bulwark of continuing liberty is a government strong enough to protect the interests of its people, and a people strong enough and well informed enough to maintain its sovereign control over its government." Amerikaans President Franklin D. Roosevelt, ‘fireside chat’ radiotoespraak, 1938.
Toegang tot informatie, meer in het bijzonder tot documenten in het bezit van de instellingen van de Europese Unie (EU), vormt een fundamenteel recht van elke EU burger. Het algemeen belang, waaronder begrepen de nood aan een effectieve bescherming van de openbare veiligheid, vereist echter dat niet elk document zonder meer kan worden vrijgegeven door de EU instellingen. Dit omwille van het hoogst gevoelige karakter van bepaalde informatie. Het is dan ook noodzakelijk dat het recht op toegang tot documenten aan een aantal uitzonderingen wordt onderworpen, zodat de EU haar taken wat betreft de bescherming van de openbare veiligheid effectief kan blijven vervullen. Een te ruime interpretatie van de uitzonderingen op het recht op toegang tot documenten houdt anderzijds het risico in zich dat dit recht in belangrijke mate kan worden ondermijnd.
Bovenstaand citaat toont het fundamenteel belang aan van zowel transparantie als de nodige speelruimte voor de overheid bij het beschermen van de openbare veiligheid in een democratische samenleving. Bovendien is het in het licht van de talrijke internationale spionageschandalen die recent de kop hebben opgestoken belangrijk om de relatie tussen beide principes te herdefiniëren. De scriptie 'The tension between freedom of information and the security of the European Union and its organs' is dan ook opgebouwd rond de vraag naar wat een goede balans vormt tussen transparantie in de activiteiten van de EU enerzijds en de bescherming van de openbare veiligheid anderzijds en hoe dergelijke balans zou kunnen worden bereikt.
Het recht op toegang tot documenten van de burgers verhoogt het democratisch karakter en de legitimiteit van de EU. Indien alle informatie die de instellingen in hun bezit hebben echter vrij zou circuleren dan zou dit op termijn een bedreiging kunnen gaan vormen voor de veiligheid in de hele Unie. Hierbij valt te denken aan informatie rond vooropgestelde antiterrorismemaatregelen. Bovendien zullen partnerlanden en -organisaties niet snel geneigd zijn om gevoelige documenten over te maken aan de instellingen van de EU indien ze weten dat deze informatie spoedig zal worden doorgegeven aan de burgers. De democratie zelf is er bij gebaat als de openbare veiligheid wordt beschermd, hetgeen een zekere mate van geheimhouding veronderstelt. Het is dan ook beter om te streven naar optimale eerder dan maximale transparantie, met een aantal noodzakelijke beperkingen op het recht op toegang tot documenten.
Dergelijke beperkingen zijn neergelegd in Verordening 1049/2001, die de EU instellingen enige beleidsvrijheid toekent bij het evalueren van het veiligheidsrisico dat vrijgave van bepaalde documenten zou kunnen opleveren. Toegang tot een document dient te worden geweigerd zodra dit aanleiding kan geven tot een ondermijning van de bescherming van het openbaar belang wat betreft openbare veiligheid, zonder dat er rekening dient te worden gehouden met een hoger openbaar belang dat vrijgave van het document toch zou kunnen rechtvaardigen. De Verordening spreekt ook over 'gevoelige documenten', die aan een nog strikter regime zijn onderworpen. Of een bepaald document als gevoelig kan worden beschouwd hangt echter af van de definitie van gevoeligheid die elke instelling hanteert, hetgeen niet optimaal is in het licht van het principe van transparantie.
De rechtspraak van het Europees Hof van Justitie heeft duidelijk gemaakt dat de mate van rechterlijke controle op een weigering van een instelling om aangevraagde documenten vrij te geven, omwille van de bescherming van de openbare veiligheid, bijzonder beperkt is. Dit omwille van de vaak gevoelige en gecompliceerde aard van de documenten in kwestie. Niettemin rijst hierbij echter de vraag of de rechtspraak van het Hof voldoende waarborgen biedt voor het recht op toegang tot documenten van de EU burgers.
In een poging om de beschreven spanning tussen het recht op toegang tot documenten en de bescherming van de openbare veiligheid te verminderen, lijkt het beter om aan de EU instellingen een andere werkstandaard op te leggen bij de behandeling van een aanvraag tot documenten dan degene die momenteel vereist wordt door Verordening 1049/2001. In dit opzicht is het wenselijk om meer de nadruk te leggen op het evenredigheidsbeginsel, dat zegt dat er geen meer verregaande maatregelen mogen worden getroffen dan degene die noodzakelijk zijn om het vooropgestelde doel te bereiken. In plaats van enkel na te gaan of vrijgave van het aangevraagde document de bescherming van de openbare veiligheid zou kunnen ondermijnen, zouden de instellingen dan ook moeten onderzoeken of een weigering tot vrijgave absoluut noodzakelijk is voor dergelijke bescherming, met inachtname van alle omstandigheden die in het specifieke geval een rol spelen. Dit zou resulteren in een meer billijke en evenwichtige relatie tussen transparantie en openbare veiligheid.
Bij het nastreven van zo'n relatie is er een cruciale rol weggelegd voor de rechterlijke macht. Hoewel de hoogst gevoelige aard van veiligheidskwesties een ruime beoordelingsvrijheid van de instellingen zeker kan rechtvaardigen, is er nood aan een verregaande rechterlijke controle in dit verband, om de deur niet open te laten voor gevallen van misbruik. Dit houdt onder meer in dat de EU Hoven onder alle omstandigheden inzage moeten krijgen in de documenten in kwestie. Daarnaast kunnen ook het Europees Parlement en de Europese Ombudsman een rol spelen bij het nastreven van een meer optimale relatie tussen transparantie en de bescherming van de openbare veiligheid.
Samenvattend kunnen we stellen dat er een duidelijke spanning is gegroeid tussen transparantie en de bescherming van de openbare veiligheid op EU niveau. Om deze spanning het hoofd te bieden, lijkt het aangewezen voor de EU instellingen om een werkstandaard van de minst verregaande maatregel aan te nemen bij het behandelen van een aanvraag voor toegang tot documenten. Om de meer evenwichtige relatie die daaruit zou voortvloeien blijvend te garanderen, is er een cruciale rol weggelegd voor de EU Hoven. Daarnaast bestaan er ook niet-rechterlijke controlemechanismen, die kunnen bijdragen tot verhoogde transparantie op EU-niveau.
Bibliografie
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 LEGISLATION
1.1 European Union
1.1.1 Treaties
Consolidated Version of the Treaty Establishing the European Community, signed at Rome, of 25 March 1957, OJ C 321E, 29.12.2006, 37.
Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, signed at Rome, of 25 March 1957, OJ C 83, 30 March 2010, 47.
Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union, signed at Maastricht, of 7 February 1992, OJ C 326, 26.10.2012, 13.
Treaty on European Union - Declaration 11992M/AFI/DCL/17 on the right of access to information of 7 February 1992, OJ C 191, 29.7.1992, 101.
Treaty of Amsterdam amending the Treaty on European Union, the treaties establishing the European Communities and related acts, signed at Amsterdam, of 2 October 1997, OJ C 340, 10.11.1997, 1.
Convention of 19 June 1990 implementing the Schengen Agreement of 14 June 1985 between the Governments of the States of the Benelux Economic Union, the Federal Republic of Germany and the French Republic on the gradual abolition of checks at their common borders, OJ L 239, 22.09.2000, 13.
Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, signed at Rome, of 29 October 2004, OJ C 310, 16.12.2004, 1.
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, signed at Strasbourg, of 12 December 2007, OJ C 326, 26.10.2012, 391.
1.1.2 Regulations
Regulation European Parliament and Council (EC) No 1049/2001 of 30 May 2001 regarding public access to European Parliament, Council and Commission documents, OJ L 145, 31.5.2001, 43.
Regulation European Parliament and Council (EC) No 2320/2002 of 16 December 2002 establishing common rules in the field of civil aviation security, OJ L 355, 30.12.2002, 1.
Regulation Commission (EC) No 622/2003 of 4 April 2003 laying down measures for the implementation of the common basic standards on aviation security, OJ L 89, 5.4.2003, 9.
Regulation European Parliament and Council (EC) No 562/2006 of 15 March 2006 establishing a Community Code on the rules governing the movement of persons across borders (Schengen Borders Code), OJ L 105, 13.04.2006, 1.
Regulation European Parliament and Council (EC) No 1987/2006 of 20 December 2006 on the establishment, operation and use of the second-generation Schengen Information System (SIS II), OJ L 381, 28.12.2006, 4.
Regulation European Parliament and Council (EU) No 265/2010 of 25 March 2010 amending the Convention Implementing the Schengen Agreement and Regulation (EC) No 562/2006 as regards movement of persons with a long-stay visa, OJ L 85, 31.03.2010, 1.
Regulation European Parliament and Council (EU) No 211/2011 of 16 February 2011 on the citizen’s initiative, OJ L 65, 11.03.2011, 1.
1.1.3 Decisions
Decision Council 93/731/EC of 20 December 1993 on public access to Council documents, OJ L 340, 31.13.1993, 43.
Decision Commission 94/90/ECSC, EC, Euratom of 8 February 1994 on public access to Commission documents, OJ L 46, 18.02.1994, 58.
Decision European Parliament, Council and Commission 95/167/EC, Euratom, ECSC of 19 April 1995 on the detailed provisions governing the exercise of the European Parliament's right of inquiry, OJ 19.05.1995 L 113, 1.
Decision Council 2001/264/EC of 19 March 2001 adopting the Council’s security regulations, OJ L 101, 11.04.2001, 1.
Decision Commission 2001/937/EC, ECSC, Euratom of 5 December 2001 amending its rules of procedure (notified under document number C(2001) 3714), OJ L 345, 29.12.2001, 94.
Decision European Parliament 2002/C 298/02 of 23 October 2002 on the implementation of the Interinstitutional Agreement governing European Parliament access to sensitive Council information in the sphere of security and defence policy, OJ C 298, 30.11.2002, 4.
Decision Council 2003/211/CFSP of 24 February 2003 concerning the conclusion of the Agreement between the European Union and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation on the Security of Information, OJ L 80, 27.03.2003, 35.
Decision Council 2004/338/EC, Euratom of 22 March 2004 adopting the Council’s Rules of Procedure, OJ L 106, 15.4.2004, 22.
Decision Council 2009/937/EU of 1 December 2009 adopting the Council’s Rules of Procedure, OJ L 325, 11.12.2009, 35.
Decision European Council 2009/882/EU of 1 December 2009 adopting its Rules of Procedure, OJ L 315, 2.12.2009, 51.
Decision Council 2010/252/EU of 26 April 2010 supplementing the Schengen Borders Code as regards the surveillance of the sea external borders in the context of operational cooperation coordinated by the European Agency for the Management of Operational Cooperation at the External Borders of the Member States of the European Union, OJ L 111, 04.05.2010, 20.
Decision Council 2010/427/EU of 26 July 2010 establishing the organisation and functioning of the European External Action Service, OJ L 201, 3.8.2010, 30.
Decision Council 2011/292/EU of 31 March 2011 on the security rules for protecting EU classified information, OJ L 141, 27.5.2011, 17.
Decision of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy 2011/C 304/05 of 15 June 2011 on the security rules for the European External Action Service, OJ C 304, 15.10. 2011, 7.
Decision High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy 2011/C 243/08 of 19 July 2011 on the rules regarding access to documents, OJ C 243, 20.8.2011, 16.
Decision Court of Justice of the European Union 2013/C 38/02 of 11 December 2012 concerning public access to documents held by the Court of Justice of the European Union in the exercise of its administrative functions, OJ C 38, 9.2.2013, 2.
1.1.4 Other
Code of Conduct Council and Commission 93/730/EC concerning public access to Council and Commission documents, OJ L 340, 31.12.1993, 41.
Interinstitutional Agreement between the European Parliament and the Council 2002/C 298/01 of 20 November 2002 concerning access by the European Parliament to sensitive information of the Council in the field of security and defence policy, OJ C 298, 30.11.2002, 1.
Framework Agreement on relations between the European Parliament and the European Commission , OJ L 304, 20.11.2010, 47.
Council document 14845/11 of 28 September 2011, containing Guidelines on downgrading and declassifying Council documents, http://register.consilium.europa.eu/doc/srv?l=EN&t=PDF&gc=true&sc=false&f=ST%2014845%202011%20INIT.
Proposal COM(2000) 30 final-2000/0032(COD) of 28 January 2000 for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council regarding public access to European Parliament, Council and Commission documents, OJ C 177E, 27.6.2000 70.
Resolution European Parliament T7-0203/2014 of 11 March 2014 on public access to documents (Rule 104(7)) for the years 2011-2013, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=TA&language=EN&refer… .
Rules of Procedure of the European Parliament, 7th Parliamentary term, March 2014, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getLastRules.do?language=EN&referen….
1.2 Council of Europe
Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, signed at Rome, of 4 November 1950, http://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Convention_ENG.pdf.
1.3 Belgium
Akkoord van 14 juni 1985, ondertekend te Schengen, tussen de Regeringen van de Staten van de Benelux Economische Unie, van de Bondsrepubliek Duitsland en van de Franse Republiek betreffende de geleidelijke afschaffing van de controles aan de gemeenschappelijke grenzen (Agreement of 14 June 1985, signed at Schengen, between the Governments of the States of the Benelux Economic Union, the Federal Republic of Germany and the French Republic on the gradual abolition of checks at their common borders), BS 29.04.1986, 5946 (Dutch and French version).
Gecoördineerde Belgische Grondwet ( Coordinated Belgian Constitution) of 17 February 1994, BS 17.02.1994, 4054, http://www.dekamer.be/kvvcr/pdf_sections/publications/constitution/grondwetEN.pdf.
Wet van 11 april 1994 betreffende de openbaarheid van bestuur (Act on the disclosure of information by the administration) of 11 April 1994, BS 30.06.1994, 17 662, http://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/cgi_loi/change_lg.pl?language=nl&la=N&table_name=wet&cn=1994041151 (Dutch version).
Wet van 11 december 1985 betreffende de classificatie en de veiligheidsmachtigingen, veiligheidsattesten en veiligheidsadviezen (Act concerning the classification and the security authorizations, security certificates and security advices) of 11 December 1998, BS 7.05.1999, 15 752, http://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/cgi_loi/change_lg.pl?language=nl&la=N&cn=1998121161&table_name=wet (Dutch version).
1.4 United Kingdom
Freedom of Information Act of 30 November 2000, http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/36/contents.
Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act of 28 May 2002, http://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2002/13/contents.
1.5 Sweden
Tryckfrihetsförordning (Freedom of the Press Act) of 2 December 1766, http://www.riksdagen.se/en/How-the-Riksdag-works/Democracy/The-Constitution/The-Freedom-of-the-Press-Act/.
Offentlighets- och sekretesslag (Public Access to Information and Secrecy Act) of 30 June 2009, http://www.riksdagen.se/sv/Dokument-Lagar/Lagar/Svenskforfattningssamling/Offentlighets--och-sekretessla_sfs-2009-400/ (Swedish version).
1.6 USA
The National Security Act of 26 July 1947, 50 USC § 3003, http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=(title:50%20section:3003%20editi….
The Freedom of Information Act of 5 June 1967, 5 USC § 552, http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?hl=false&edition=prelim&req=granuleid%3AUSC-2012-title5-section552&f=treesort&fq=true&num=0.
The Privacy Act of 31 December 1974, 5 USC § 552a, http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title5-sect….
Executive Order 10290 of 24 September 1951 Prescribing Regulations Establishing Minimum Standards for the Classification, Transmission, and Handling, by Departments and Agencies of the Executive Branch, of Official Information Which Requires Safeguarding in the Interest of the Security of the United States, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=78426.
Executive Order 13526 of 29 December 2009 on Classified National Security Information, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/executive-order-classified-national-security-information.
2 CASE LAW
2.1 Court of Justice of the European Union
2.1.1 European Court of Justice
ECJ, Case C-230/78 Spa Eridania-Zuccherifici nazionali [1979] ECR I-02749.
ECJ, Case C-195/80, Michel v Parliament [1981] ECR I-02861.
ECJ, Case C-42/84 Remia BV v Commission [1985] ECR I-02545.
ECJ, Case C-58/94 Netherlands v Council [1996] ECR I-02169.
ECJ, Case C-104/97 P Atlanta v Commission [1999] ECR I-6963.
ECJ, Joined Cases C-174/98 P and C-189/98 P Netherlands and van der Wal v Commission [2000] ECR I-00001.
ECJ, Case C-353/99 P Council v Hautala [2001] ECR I-09565.
ECJ, Case C-41/00 P Interporc Im- und Export GmbH v Commission [2003] ECR I-02125.
ECJ, Case C-353/01P Mattila v Council and Commission [2004] ECR I-01073.
ECJ, Case C-266/05 P Sison v Council [2007] ECR I-01233.
ECJ, Case C-161/06, Skoma-Lux [2007] ECR I-10841.
ECJ, Case C-64/05 Sweden v Commission [2007] ECR I-11389.
ECJ, Joined Cases C-39/05 P and C-52/05 P Sweden and Turco v Council [2008] ECR I-04723.
ECJ, Case C-345/06 Heinrich [2009] ECR I-01659.
ECJ, Case C-28/08 P Commission v Bavarian Lager [2010] ECR I-06055.
ECJ, Case C-139/07 P, Commission v Technische Glaswerke Ilmenau [2010] ECR I-05885.
ECJ, Joined Cases C-514/07 P, C-528/07 P and C-532/07 P, Sweden and Others v API and Commission [2010] ECR I-08533
ECJ, Joined Cases C-92/09 and C-93/09 Volker und Markus Schecke and Eifert [2010] ECR I-11063.
ECJ, Case C-506/08 P Sweden v MyTravel and Commission [2011] ECR I-6237.
ECJ, Case C‑135/11 P IFAW Internationaler Tierschutz-Fonds v Commission [2012] ECR I‑0000.
ECJ, Case C-280/11 P Council v Access Info Europe [2013] ECR I-0000.
ECJ, Case C-576/12 P Jurašinović v Council [2013] ECR I-0000.
2.1.2 Court of First Instance and General Court
CFI, Case T-194/94 Carvel v Council [1995] ECR II-02765.
CFI, Case T-105/95 WWF UK v Commission [1997] ECR II-00313.
CFI, Case T-124/96 Interporc Im- und Export GmbH v Commission [1998] ECR II-00231.
CFI, Order of the President in Case T-610/97 R, Fangel and others v Council [1998], ECR II-00485.
CFI, Case T-174/95 Svenska Journalistförbundet v Council [1998] ECR II-2289.
CFI, Case T-188/97 Rothmans v Commission [1999] ECR II-02463.
CFI, Case T-14/98 Hautala v Council [1999] ECR II-02489.
CFI, Order in Case T-106/99, Meyer v Commission [1999] ECR II-3273.
CFI, Case T-188/98, Kuijer v Council (Kuijer I) [2000], ECR II-01959.
CFI, Order in Case T-103/99, Associazione delle Cantine Sociali Venete v Ombudsman and Parliament [2000] ECR II-4165.
CFI, Case T-20/99 Denkavit Nederland v Commission [2000] ECR II-3011.
CFI, Case T-123/99, JT’s Corporation v Commission [2000] ECR II-03269.
CFI, Case T-191/99 Petrie and others v Commission [2001] ECR II-3677.
CFI, Case T-211/00 Kuijer v Council (Kuijer II) [2002] ECR II-00485.
CFI, Case T-2/03 Verein für Konsumenteninformation v Commission [2005] ECR II-01121.
CFI, Joined Cases T-110/03, T-150-03 and T-405/03 Sison v Council [2005] ECR II-1429.
CFI, Joined Cases T-3/00 and T-337/04 Pitsiorlas v Council and ECB [2007] ECRII-04779.
CFI, Case T-166/05 Borax Europe v Commission [2009] ECR II-00028, summary publication.
EGC, Case T-233/09 Access Info Europe v Council [2011] ECR II-01073.
EGC, Case T-59/09 Germany v Commission [2012] published in the electronic Reports of Cases (Court Reports-general).
EGC, Case T-529/09 In ‘t Veld v Council [2012] ECR II-0000.
EGC, Case T-465/09 Jurašinović v Council [2012] ECR II-0000.
EGC, Case T-63/10 Jurašinović v Council [2012], ECR II-0000.
2.1.3 Advocate General Opinions
Opinion of AG Tesauro in ECJ, Case C-58/94 Netherlands v Council [1996] ECR I-02169.
Opinion of AG Léger in ECJ, Case C-353/99 P Council v Hautala [2001] ECR I-09565.
Opinion of AG Geelhoed in ECJ, Case C-266/05 P Sison v Council [2007] ECR I-1233.
Opinion of AG Sharpston in ECJ, Case C-345/06 Heinrich [2009] ECR I-01659.
Opinion of AG Cruz Villalón in ECJ, Case C-280/11 P Council v Access Info Europe [2013] ECR I-0000.
2.2 European Court of Human Rights
ECtHR 26 March 1987, Leander v Sweden, No. 9248/81.
3 LEGAL DOCTRINE
3.1 Monographs
CHALMERS, D., DAVIES, G. and MONTI, G., European Union Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010, XCI+1116 p.
CRAIG, P. and DE BÚRCA, G., EU Law - Text, cases and materials, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011, CLVII+1155 p.
CRAIG, P., The Lisbon Treaty - Law, Politics and Treaty reform, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013, XXXVII+529 p.
DASHWOOD, A., DOUGAN, M., RODGER, B., SPAVENTA, E. and WYATT, D., Wyatt and Dashwood’s European Union Law, Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2011, CXXIV+985 p.
EDWARD, D. and LANE, R., Edward and Lane on European Union Law, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 2013, CCXI+988 p.
HOBBES, T., Leviathan, or the matter, forme and power of a commonwealth ecclesiasticall and civil (1651), New York, Simon and Schuster, 2008, XVIII+576 p.
JEFFRYES-JONES, R., The CIA and American Democracy, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1989, X+338 p.
KACZOROWSKA, A., European Union Law, London, Routledge, 2011, CCXXI+977 p.
KRANENBORG, H. and VOERMANS, W., Access to Information in the European Union-A Comparative Analysis of EC and Member State Legislation, Groningen, Europa Law Publishing, 2005, VIII+129 p.
LENAERTS, K. and VAN NUFFEL, P., European Union Law, London, Sweet and Maxwell, 2011, CCXLIX+1083 p.
MATHIJSEN, P. and DYRBERG, P., Mathijsen’s guide to European Union Law, London, Sweet & Maxwell, 2013, CLXXII+728 p.
MILL, J., Considerations on Representative Government, London, Parker, Son and Bourn, West Strand, 1861, VI+339 p.
MILL, J., On Liberty (1859), London, Walter Scott Publishing Co., 1900, XXVI+219 p.
MOUSSIS, N., Access to the European Union – Law, Economics, Policies, Cambridge, Intersentia, 2013, XIX+775 p.
RICKS, T., TILLETT, B. and VANMETER, C., Principles of Security, Cincinnati, Anderson Publishing Co., 1988, VII+386 p.
SCHÜTZE, R., European Constitutional Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2012, LIII+484 p.
SINGER, P., Corporate Warriors - The Rise of the Privatized Military Industry, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 2011, XI+360 p.
STREINZ, R., EUV/AEUV-Vertrag über die Europäische Union und Vertrag über die Arbeitsweise der Europäische Union, München, Beck, 2012, XXIV+2948 p.
VERMEULEN, G. and DE BONDT, W., EU Justice and Home Affairs – Institutional and policy development, Antwerp, Maklu, 2014, 145 p.
VAN MEERTEN, H., Een Europese Unie: efficiënt, transparant en democratisch – Beschouwingen over een Europese Unie met tenminste 27 lidstaten, Rotterdam, Kluwer, 2004, XII+221 p.
WOODS, L. and WATSON, P., Steiner & Woods EU Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2012, CXXI+738 p.
3.2 Contributions to edited volumes
BENTHAM, J., “Bentham’s Draught for the Organization of Judicial Establishments, Compared with That of the National Assembly, with a Commentary on the Same” in BOWRING, J., (ed.), The Works of Jeremy Bentham, Vol. 4, Edinburgh, William Tait, 1838, 305-406.
BRODEUR, J.-P., GILL, P. and TÖLLBORG, D., “Introduction” in BRODEUR, J.-P., GILL, P. and TÖLLBORG, D. (eds.), Democracy, Law and Security – Internal security services in contemporary Europe, Aldershot, Ashgate, 1-6.
CURTIN, D. and DEKKER, I., “Good Governance: the Concept and its Application by the European Union” in CURTIN, D. and WESSEL, R. (eds.), Good Governance and the European Union – Reflections on Concepts, Institutions and Substance, Antwerp, Intersentia, 2005, 3-20.
DUPONT, B. and WOOD, J., “The Future of Democracy” in DUPONT, B. and WOOD, J., (eds.), Democracy, Society and the Governance of Security, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006, 241-248.
FITZPATRICK, J., “Introduction” in COLIVER, S., HOFFMAN, P., FITZPATRICK, J. and BOWEN, S., Secrecy and Liberty: National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, The Hague, Kluwer Law International, 1999, XI-XIV.
JOHNSTON, L., “Transnational security governance” in DUPONT, B. and WOOD, J., (eds.), Democracy, Society and the Governance of Security, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006, 33-51.
KARAGIANNIS, S., “L’apport du médiateur à la protection des droits fondamentaux” in KARAGIANNIS, S. and PETIT, Y., (eds.), Le médiateur européen : bilan et perspectives, Brussels, Bruylant, 2007 , 89-133.
KOHLER-KOCH, B. and RITTBERGER, B., “Charting Crowded Territory: Debating the Democratic Legitimacy of the European Union” in KOHLER-KOCH, B. and RITTBERGER, B. (eds.), Debating the Democratic Legitimacy of the European Union, Lanham, Rowman & Littlefield, 2007, 1-29.
LUSTGARTEN, L., “National Security and Political Policing - Some Thoughts on Values, Ends and Law” in BRODEUR, J.-P., GILL, P. and TÖLLBORG, D. (eds.), Democracy, Law and Security – Internal security services in contemporary Europe, Aldershot, Ashgate, 319-334.
MENDEL, T., “National Security vs. Openness: An Overview and Status Report on the Johannesburg Principles” in Campbell Public Affairs Institute-Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University, National Security and Open Governement: Striking the Right Balance, Syracuse, 2003, 1-31.
Report of the discussion on Public Access to Documents and Security at the Conference Transparency in Europe II – Public Access to Documents in the EU and its Member States, hosted by the Netherlands during its chairmanship of the EU Council at 25 and 26 November 2004 in STOLK, P., TUNOVIC, A., KRANENBORG, H. and VOERMANS, W. (eds.), Transparency in Europe II- Public Access to Documents in the EU and its Member States, Artoos, Rijswijk, 2004, 107-110.
THOMSEN, J. and VAN DE RIJT, W., “How to Strike the Balance between Transparency and Confidentiality” in STOLK, P., TUNOVIC, A., KRANENBORG, H. and VOERMANS, W. (eds.), Transparency in Europe II- Public Access to Documents in the EU and its Member States, Artoos, Rijswijk, 2004, 93-103.
WESSEL, R., “Good Governance and EU Foreign, Security and Defence Policy” in CURTIN, D. and WESSEL, R. (eds.), Good Governance and the European Union – Reflections on Concepts, Institutions and Substance, Antwerp, Intersentia, 2005, 215-252.
3.3 Journal articles
ADAMSKI, D., “How Wide is “The Widest Possible”? Judicial Interpretation of the Exceptions to the Right of Access to Official Documents Revisited”, C.M.L.Rev. 2009, 521-549.
ALEMANNO, A., “Unpacking the Principle of Openness in EU Law - Transparency, Participation and Democracy”, E.L.R. 2014 (forthcoming), http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2303644, 1-22.
BÜHLMANN, M., MERKEL, W., MÜLLER, L., GIEBLER, H. and WESSELS, B., “Demokratiebarometer: ein neues Instrument zur Messung von Demokratiequalität”, Z. Vgl. Polit. Wiss. 2012, 115-159.
CURTIN, D., “Judging EU Secrecy”, C.D.E. 2012, 459-490.
HELISKOSKI, J. and LEINO, P., “Darkness at the Break of Noon: The Case Law on Regulation No. 1049/2001 on Access to Documents”, C.M.L.Rev. 2006, 735-781.
HOLLYER, J., ROSENDORFF, B. and VREELAND, J., “Democracy and transparency”, J.O.P. 2011, 1191-1205.
KARP, J., BANDUCCI, S. and BOWLER, S., “To Know is to Love it?: Satisfaction with Democracy in the European Union”, C.P.S. 2003, 271-292.
KRATZ, C., “Transparency and the European Union”, C.V. 1999, 387-392.
LENAERTS, K. “ ‘In the Union we Trust’: Trust Enhancing Principles of Community Law”, C.M.L.Rev. 2004, 317-343.
LODGE, J., “EU Homeland Security: Citizens or Suspects?”, J.E.I. 2004, 253-279.
SAMAHA, A. “Government Secrets, Constitutional Law, and Platforms for Judicial Intervention”, UCLA L.Rev. 2006, 909-976.
SHEARING, C. and STENNING, P., “Modern Private Security: Its Growth and Implications”, C.A.J. 1981, 193-245.
ZBIGNIEW HILLEBRANDT, M., CURTIN, D. and MEIJER, A., “Transparency in the EU Council of Ministers: An Institutional Analysis”, E.L.J. 2014, 1-20.
3.4 Online articles and lectures
DE BAERE, G., “Access to documents and data protection in the European External Action Service”, Leuven Center for Global Governance Studies Working Paper Series March 2013, WP 103, http://ghum.kuleuven.be/ggs/publications/working_papers/new_series/wp101-110/wp103-de-baere.pdf.
ROSÉN, G. “Can you keep a secret? How the European Parliament got access to sensitive documents in the area of security and defence”, RECON Online Working Paper Series October 2011, Working Paper 2011/22, http://www.reconproject.eu/main.php/RECON_wp_1122.pdf?fileitem=5455980, 1-22.
STIGLITZ, J., “On liberty, the right to know and public discourse: the role of transparency in public life”, Oxford Amnesty Lecture, 1999, http://www.internationalbudget.org/wp-content/uploads/On-Liberty-the-Right-to-Know-and-Public-Discourse-The-Role-of-Transparency-in-Public-Life.pdf.
VERHOEVEN, A., “The Right to Information: A Fundamental Right?”, lecture at European Institute for Public Administration Conference: An Efficient, Transparent Government and the Rights of Citizens to Information, Maastricht, 2000, http://aei.pitt.edu/573/1/Amaryllis.pdf.
4 OTHER SOURCES
4.1 European Union
Publication European Parliament 96/C 157/1 on how to complain with the European Ombudsman, OJ C 157, 01.06.1996, 1.
Communication Commission COM (2002) 704 final of 11 December 2002 Towards a reinforced culture of consultation and dialogue - General principles and minimum standards for consultation of interested parties by the Commission, http://ec.europa.eu/governance/docs/comm_standards_en.pdf.
Council annual report on access to documents 2010, http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/librairie/PDF/EN_ACC_web-2011.pdf.
Council annual report on access to documents 2011, http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/librairie/PDF/QCAF1200EN.pdf.
Council annual report on access to documents 2012, http://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/2063344/web_en_access_to_doc_2013.pdf.
Answers given by the Council to Parliamentary Questions in the European Parliament on 10 December 2012, E-008395/2012, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getAllAnswers.do?reference=E-2012-008395&language=EN.
Report European External Action Service EEAS (2013) 1141825 of 13 May 2013 on access to documents for the years 2011 and 2012, http://www.eeas.europa.eu/documents/pdf/report_access_to_documents_2011-12_en.pdf.
European Parliament Directorate-General for Internal Policies-Policy Department C: Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs, Openness, transparency and access to documents and information in the EU, 2013, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/note/join/2013/493035/IPOL-LIBE_NT(2013)493035_EN.pdf.
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/aboutparliament/en/003a6f9886/Access-to-documents.html.
http://europa.eu/about-eu/institutions-bodies/ombudsman/index_en.htm.
4.2 Sweden
Ministry of Justice, Sweden, Public Access to Information and Secrecy Act- Information concerning public access to information and secrecy legislation, etc., http://www.government.se/content/1/c6/13/13/97/aa5c1d4c.pdf.
4.3 USA
http://www.usa.gov/Topics/Reference-Shelf/FOIA.shtml.
U.S. Department of Justice, Executive Office of the President- Office of Management and Budget and U.S. General Services Administration- Office of Citizen Services & Innovative Technologies- Federal Citizen Information Center, Your Right to Federal Records-Questions and Answers on the Freedom of Information Act and the Privacy Act, 2011, http://publications.usa.gov/USAPubs.php?PubID=6080.
4.4 NGO’s
Johannesburg Principles of 1 October 1995 on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, http://www.article19.org/data/files/pdfs/standards/joburgprinciples.pdf.
