Imagebuilding in de Tudortijd: de Vestaalse maagd Tuccia als rolmodel voor Elizabeth I van Engeland
Tussen 1579 en 1583 produceren artiesten aan het Britse hof intrigerende portretten van koningin Elizabeth I (1533-1603) waarop ze staat afgebeeld met een zeef. Wat is de betekenis hiervan? Wat kan de inclusie van het huisraad mogelijk verraden over deze machtige vorstin? Door het mysterie van het motief van de zeef te ontrafelen, krijgen we meer vat op Elizabeths personaen op haar eigen visie en die van haar raadgevers op haar publiek imago.
Wie was Tuccia?
In The Plimpton Sieve Portrait (Folger Shakespeare Library, 1579; Afb. 1) en The Siena Sieve Portrait (Pinacoteca Nazionale di Siena, 1583; Afb. 2) houdt de regale Elizabeth een zeef vast. Dit attribuut verwijst naar de Vestaalse maagd Tuccia, die geruchten van onkuisheid weerlegde met behulp van een zeef. Tuccia bewees haar onschuld door een zeef te vullen met water van de Tiber. Vervolgens liep zij met de zeef terug naar het schrijn van Vesta, zonder een druppel te verliezen. De ondoorlaatbare zeef stond dus symbool voor Tuccia’s maagdelijkheid. Die maagdelijkheid was cruciaal voor de Vestalinnen, die de stad Rome vertegenwoordigden. De Romeinen geloofden namelijk dat de reinheid van deze priesteressen de stad vrijwaarde van nederlagen en rampen. De Vestaalse maagden fungeerden dan ook als apotropaia(beschermers tegen het kwaad) van Rome. Het is daarom opvallend dat in tijde van rampspoed een aantal ongelukkige Vestalinnen de zondebokken werden van algemene paniek. Deze ‘onkuise’ meisjes moesten het dan ook met hun leven bekopen om zo de verstoorde banden met de goden terug te herstellen.
In een vroegzeventiende-eeuwse gravure van Raffaello Guidi (1585-1615) uit het prentenkabinet van het Rijksmuseum komt die connectie tussen Tuccia’s maagdelijkheid en de triomf van een onbevlekt Rome tot uiting op een bijzondere wijze (Afb. 3). Achter Tuccia, die met haar zeef water schept uit de Tiber, trekt een triomftocht door de stad. Dit toont het verband tussen de Vestaalse maagdelijkheid en de triomf aan. Daarnaast, schijnt Tuccia ook aanzien te worden als de beschermer van de eeuwige stad tegen het onstuimige temperament van haar rivier, de Tiber. In het vergezellende Latijnse onderschrift staat namelijk dat Tuccia de Tiber controleert, net zoals het water in haar zeef. Het vers is vermoedelijk geschreven naar aanleiding van de overstromingen die Rome teisterden in de zestiende en zeventiende eeuw, waardoor de stad besloot de koers van de rivier te rectificeren.
Het mirakel van Tuccia en haar zeef moet ook bekeken worden vanuit het oogpunt van gender. Petrarca (1304-1374) voegde de maagd toe aan zijn “Triomf van de Kuisheid,” waardoor de legende populair werd in humanistische kringen. Het motief van de Vestaalse maagd en haar attribuut duikt dan ook meermaals op in het huishouden van de Italiaanse gegoede klassen als didactisch model voor de vrouwen des huizes: op huwelijkskistjes, doopkistjes, wanddecoraties van slaapvertrekken, etc. Kuisheid was immers de belangrijkste deugd die een vrouw kon bezitten! Vrouwen zoals Vittoria della Rovere (1622-1694) lieten zich dan ook afbeelden als Tuccia om hun deugd te benadrukken. Ook in emblemataboeken werd de zeef afgebeeld als symbool van kuisheid. Er ontstond ook een analogie tussen Tuccia en haar paradoxaal ondoorlaatbare zeef en de maagd Maria, die tevens aanzien werd als een gesloten vat.
Elizabeth, moderne Vestaalse maagd
Hoe komt het nu dat het attribuut van de Vestaalse maagd opduikt in de twee Sieve Portraits van de Britse koningin Elizabeth? Het antwoord is meervoudig. De context waarin deze portretten gemaakt zijn, is van cruciaal belang. In deze periode maakt Elizabeth een verandering door van huwbare koningin tot Virgin Queen. Van 1572 tot 1582 maakt de Franse hertog Francis d’Anjou (1555-1584) Elizabeth het hof. In 1579 kwam de hertog zelfs naar Engeland, een bezoek dat huwelijksonderhandelingen in gang zette. De koningin, die oprechte sympathie en affectie voor de hertog toonde, kon door dit verbond met Frankrijk het vijandige Spanje in toom houden. Het Britse volk reageerde echter verdeeld op de mogelijke verbintenis. De protestanten hadden namelijk angst voor de heropleving van een katholiek bewind. Elizabeth verbrak dan ook de ‘Anjou match’ en ontpopte zich tot de iconische Virgin Queen, die in ons collectief geheugen gegrift staat. Tijdens het schilderen van Gowers Plimpton Sieve Portraitkan de zeef die Elizabeth vastheeft nog gelezen worden als een teken van kuisheid van een huwbare koningin, terwijl in het ernstigere Siena Sieve Portrait, Elizabeth de zeef draagt als het attribuut van haar alleenheerschappij als maagdelijke koningin.
Naast de vele gelijkenissen tussen de twee portretten, heeft het Siena Sieve Portrait een grotere iconografische gelaagdheid. Op het schilderij staat een zuil met medaillons van het verhaal van Dido en Aeneas. Zowel Aeneas, die Rome stichtte, als de Carthaagse koningin Dido symboliseren de imperialistische expansiepolitiek die Elizabeth voerde. Als erfgenaam van Brutus van Troje, trachtte Elizabeth haar eigen wereldrijk — een nieuw Rome — uit te bouwen. De zeef van Tuccia in dit portret verwijst dan ook naar de triomf die de maagdelijke koningin beoogde. Zoals Tuccia de Tiber controleerde, wilde Elizabeth de zeeën beheersen door het uitbreiden van haar zeemacht. Tuccia, die de begrippen van de triomf en de maagdelijkheid met elkaar verenigde, werd dus het ideale rolmodel voor Elizabeth.
Nog een ander facet van Tuccia sprak Elizabeth aan. De koningin startte haar eigen protestantse cultus van de Virgin Queen, die rivaliseerde met de katholieke verering van de Heilige Maagd Maria. Door de associatie met de heidense Mariafiguur Tuccia, verkrijgt Elizabeth ook het aura van de Heilige Maagd. Elizabeth en haar raadgevers beseften dat kunst als propagandamiddel haar imago als mythische maagd kon verspreiden. Door zich te vereenzelvigen met Tuccia plaatste de koningin zich boven al haar vrouwelijke onderdanen, die lekkende seksuele wezens waren. Elizabethaanse toneelschrijvers alludeerden in hun komedies op het lekkende, onreine bestaan van vrouwen (leaky vessels). Door zich te distantiëren van de gewone vrouw, kon Elizabeth haar koningschap valideren. Elizabeth als ondoorlaatbare zeef, als gesloten vat, als moderne Vestaalse maagd kon zo Engeland belichamen en regeren, net zoals Tuccia en de andere priesteressen Rome vertegenwoordigden.
Bibliografie
References
Works
Baert, Barbara. “‘Jij hebt mijn hart verwond.’ Hooglied in beeld.” In Hooglied. Bijbelse liefde in beeld, woord en klank, ed. by Hans Ausloos and Ignace Bossuyt, 59-108. Leuven: VBS-Acco, 2008.
————. “‘Hoe zal dat gebeuren?’ De Annunciatie en de zichtbare onzichtbaarheid.” In Echter dan werkelijkheid?, ed. by Edwin Koster en Henry Jansen, 40-60. Zoetermeer: Uitgeverij Meinema, 2011.
————, Liesbet Kusters, and Emma Sidgwick. “An Issue of Blood: The Healing of the Women with the Haemorrhage (Mark 5.24B-34; Luke 8.42B-48; Matthew 9.19-22) in Early Medieval Visual Culture.” Journal of Religion and Health 51, 3 (2012): 663-681.
————. “An Odour, a Taste, a Touch. Impossible to Describe. Noli me tangere and the Senses.” In Religion and the Senses in Early Modern Europe. Intersections. Interdisciplinary Studies in Early Modern Culture 26, ed. by Wietse de Boer and Christine Goettler, 111–151. Leiden: Brill, 2013.
————. “Around the sieve. Motif, Symbol, Hermeneutic.” TEXTILE. Journal of Cloth and Culture 16, 1 (2018): 1-23.
Barnes, Timothy D. Ammianus Marcellinus and the Representation of Historical Reality. Ithaca/ London: Cornell University Press, 1998.
Barker, Emma. “Reading the Greuze Girl: The Daughter’s Seduction.” Representations 117, 1 (2012): 86-119.
Baskins, Cristelle Louise. Cassone Painting, Humanism and Gender in Early Modern Italy. Cambridge studies in new art history and criticism, ed. by Norman Bryson. Cambridge/ New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Beard, Mary. “The Sexual Status of Vestal Virgins.” The Journal of Roman Studies 70 (1980): 12-27.
————. SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome. London: Profile Books, 2016.
————. Women & Power: A Manifesto. London: Profile Books/ London Review of Books, 2017.
Beauvoir, Simone de. Le deuxième sexe. 2 vols. Paris: Gallimard, 1949.
Bell, Ilona. Elizabethan Women and the Poetry of Courtship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Bennett, Judith M. History Matters: Patriarchy and the Challenge of Feminism. Philadelphia: University of Penssylvania Press, 2006.
Berry, Lloyd E (ed.). John Stubbs’s Gaping Gulf with Letters and Other Relevant Documents. Folger Documents of Tudor and Stuart Civilization. Charlottesville: The University Press of Virginia, 1968.
Benadusi, Giovanna. “The Gender Politics of Vittoria della Rovere.” In Medici Women: The Making of a Dynasty in Grand Ducal Tuscany, ed. by Giovanna Benadusi and Judith C. Brown, 266-303. Essays and Studies 36, ed. by Konrad Eisenbichler. Toronto: Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies, 2015.
Bindley, T.H (ed.). The Apology of Tertullian. London/ Oxford: Parker and Co., 1890.
Borenius, Tancred. “Unpublished Cassone Panels-I,” The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs 40, 227 (1922): 70-71,74-75.
Burriss, Eli Edward. Taboo, Magic, Spirits: A Study of Primitive Elements in Roman Religion. 2nd ed. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1974.
Callmann, Ellen. Apollonio di Giovanni. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974.
Coch, Christine. “‘Mother of my Contreye’: Elizabeth I and Tudor Constructions of Motherhood.” In The Mysteries of Elizabeth I: Selections from the English Literary Renaissance, ed. by Kirby Farrell and Kathleen M. Swaim, 134-161. Amherst/ Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 2003.
Coller, Alexandra. Women, Rhetoric, and Drama in Early Modern Italy. New York/ London: Routledge, 2017.
Connolly, Annaliese and Lisa Hopkins (eds.). Goddesses and Queens: The iconography of Elizabeth I. Manchester/ New York: Manchester University Press, 2007.
Cottrell, Philip. “Painting Poetry: Bonifacio de’ Pitati’s ‘Triumphs of Petrarch.’” Artibus et Historiae 34, 68 (2013): 121-141.
Cox, Virginia. “Sixteenth-Century Women Petrarchists and the Legacy of Laura.” Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 35, 3 (2005) 583-606.
Crab, Marijke. Exemplary Reading: Printed Renaissance Commentaries on Valerius Maximus (1470-1600). Scientia Universalis 1: Studien zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte der Vormoderne 2, ed. by Karl A. E. Enenkel. Münster: LIT Verlag, 2015.
Cressy, David. Birth, Marriage, and Death: Ritual, Religion, and the Life-Cycle in Tudor and Stuart England. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Damian, Véronique and Alberto Crispo, A selection of Italian and Flemish paintings from the 16th to 18th centuries. unpublished. Paris: Galerie Canesso SAS, 2017.
Didi-Huberman, George, Vivian Rehberg, Boris Belay. “Artistic Survival: Panofsky vs. Warburg and the Excorcism of Impure Time.” Common Knowledge 9, 2 (2003): 273-285.
DiLuzio Meghan J. A Place at the Altar: Priestesses in Republican Rome. Princeton/ Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2016.
Erman-Vlahović, Mirna, Dubravko Habek, Ivan Vlahović, et al. “Pseudoacute abdomen in female caused by haematometrocolpos and haematosalpinx because hymen imperforatus: diagnosis and therapy of imperforate hymen.” Central European Journal of Medicine 2, 3 (2007): 351-355.
Essling, V.M. and Eugène Müntz. Pétrarque: ses études d’art, son influence sur les artistes, ses portraits et ceux de Laure, l’illustration de ses écrits. Paris: Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 1902.
Fastiggi, Robert L. “Mary: Exemplar of Faithful Love for Virgins, Spouses, Mothers, and the Church.” Ave Maria Law Review 8, 2 (2010): 339-347.
Feinblatt, Ebria. “Notes on Some Bolognese Drawings.” Master Drawings 14, 3 (1976): 347-351.
Fisher, Will. “Handkerchiefs and Early Modern Ideologies of Gender.” Shakespeare Studies 28 (2000): 199-207.
Franklin, Margaret. Boccaccio’s Heroines: Power and Virtue in Renaissance Society. Women and Gender in the Early Modern World, ed. by Allyson Poska and Abby Zanger. Hampshire: Ashgate, 2006.
Fogelman, Peggy. “’S’eri tu in viso qual ti feo Canova’: Canova’s Herm of a Vestal Virgin.” The J. Paul Getty Museum Journal 22 (1994): 43-55.
Forycki, Maciej. “A new education of women. Denis Diderot’s anatomy course project for young noble women.” Biuletyn Historii Wychowania. 1233-2224. 29 (2013): 7-14.
Gim, Lisa. “Representing the ‘Phoenix Queen’: Elizabeth I in Writings by Anna Maria van Schurman and Anne Bradstreet.” In Resurrecting Elizabeth I in Seventeenth-Century England, ed. by Elizabeth H. Hageman and Katherine Conway, 168-184. Madison, N.J.: Rosemont Publishing & Printing, 2007.
Goldthwaite, Richard A. The Building of Renaissance Florence: An Economic and Social History. Baltimore/ London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980.
Goodman, Elise. The Portraits of Madame de Pompadour: Celebrating the Femme Savante. Discovery Series 7. Berkeley/ Los Angeles/ London: University of California Press, 2000.
Green, Henry (ed.). Whitney’s “Choice of Emblemes.” A fac-simile reprint. London/ Chester/ Nantwich: Lovell Reeve & Co./ Minshull & Hughes/ E.H. Griffiths, 1866.
Greenblatt, Stephen and M.H. Abrams, Carol T. Christ et al. (eds.). The Norton Anthology of English Literature. 8th ed. vol. 1. New York/ London: W. W. Norton & Company, 2006.
Guenther, Genevieve. “New-Historical Elizabeths.” Huntington Library Quarterly 70, 3 (2007): 461-467.
Guidobuoni, Emanuela. “When towns collapse: Images of Earthquakes, Floods, and Eruptions in Italy in the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Centuries.” In Wounded Cities: The Representation of Urban Disasters in European Art (14th-20th Centuries), ed. by Marco Folin and Monica Preti, 33-57. Leiden/ Boston: Bril, 2015.
Hannah, John (ed.). Poems by Sir Henry Wotton, Sir Walter Raleigh,and Others. London: William Pickering, 1845.
Hackett, Helen. Virgin Mother, Maiden Queen: Elizabeth I and the Cult of the Virgin Mary. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995.
————. “A New Image of Elizabeth I: The Three Goddesses Theme in Art and Literature,” Huntington Library Quarterly 77, 3 (2014): 225–256.
————. “Anne Boleyn’s Legacy to Elizabeth I: Neoclassicism and the Iconography of Protestant Queenship.” In Queens Matter in Early Modern Studies. ed. by Anna Riehl Bertolet. Queenship and Power, ed. by C. Beem and C. Levin, 157-180. London/ New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.
Heiken, Grant, Renato Funiciello and Donatella De Rita, The Seven Hills of Rome: A Geological Tour of the Eternal City. Princeton/ Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2005.
Hills, Helen. “Iconography and Ideology: Aristocracy, Immaculacy and Virginity in Seventeenth-Century Palermo.” Oxford Art Journal 17, 2 (1994): 16-31.
Holt, Mack P. The Duke of Anjou and the Politique Struggle During the Wars of Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
James, Susan E. The Feminine Dynamic in English Art, 1485-1603: Women as Consumers, Patrons and Painters. London/ New York: Routledge, 2016.
Janan, Micaela. The Politics of Desire: Propertius IV. Berkeley/ Los Angeles/ London: University of California Press, 2001.
Johnson, Geraldine A. and Sara F. Matthews Grieco (eds.). Picturing Women in Renaissance and Baroque Italy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Jonson, Ben. Bartholomew Fair. ed by Eugene M. Waith. The Yale Ben Jonson, ed. by Alvin B. Kernan and Richard B. Young. New Haven/ London: Yale University Press, 1963.
Kaltenbach, G. E. “Cassoni.” The American Magazine of Art 14, 11 (1923): 597-599.
Karpinska, Monika. “Early Modern Dramatizations of Virgins and Pregnant Women.” SEL 50, 2 (2010): 427-444.
Keenan, Siobhan. Renaissance Literature, Edinburgh Critical Guides. Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2008.
Kelly-Gadol, Joan. “Did Women Have a Renaissance?” In Becoming Visible: Women in European History, ed. by Renate Bridenthal, Claudia Koonz, and Susan Stuard, 2nd. ed., 175-201. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1987.
Helen King, The Disease of Virgins: Green Sickness, Chlorosis, and the Problems of Puberty. London/New York: Routledge, 2004.
Klapisch-Zuber, Christiane. Women, Family, and Ritual in Renaissance Italy. trans. by Lydia Cochrane. Chicago/ London: The University of Chicago Press, 1985.
Kowalewski, Barbara. Frauengestalten im Geschichtswerk des T. Livius. München/ Leipzig: K. G. Saur, 2002.
Lander Johnson, Bonnie. Chastity in Early Stuart Literature and Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
Larner, Christina. Witchcraft and Religion: The Politics of Popular Belief. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984.
Lawson, Jane E. (ed.), The Elizabethan New Year's Gift Exchanges, 1559-1603. Oxford: The British Academy by Oxford University Press, 2013.
Lebenzstejn, Jean-Claude. Pissing Figures: 1280-2014. Ekphrasis, ed. by Lucas Zwirner. trans. from French by Jeff Nagy. New York: David Zwirner Books, 2017.
Lee, Alexander. Petrarch and St. Augustine: Classical Scholarship, Christian Theology and the Origins of the Renaissance in Italy. Brill’s Studies in Intellectual History 210, ed. by Han van Ruler. Leiden: Brill, 2012.
Leesberg, Marjolein. Johannes Stradanus. The New Hollstein Dutch & Flemish Etchings, Engravings and Woodcuts 1450-1700, ed. by Huigen Leeflang. vol 2, Part II. Ouderkerk aan den IJssel: Sound & Vision Publishers, 2008.
Lennon, Jack J. Pollution and Religion in Ancient Rome. Cambridge/ New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
Levine, Molly Myerowitz. “The Gendered Grammar of Ancient Mediterranean Hair.” In Off with Her Head!: The Denial of Women’s Identity in Myth, Religion, and Culture, ed. by Howard Eilberg-Schwartz and Wendy Doniger, 76-130. Berkeley/ Los Angeles/ London: University of California, 1995.
Licence, Amy. In Bed with the Tudors: The sex lives of a dynasty from Elizabeth of York to Elizabeth I. Gloucestershire: Amberley Publishing, 2013.
Lindner, Molly M. Portraits of the Vestal Virgins, priestesses of ancient Rome. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2015.
Loades, David. Elizabeth I: A Life. London/ New York: Hambledon Continuum, 2006.
MacLachlan, Bonnie and Judith Fletcher (eds.). Virginity Revisited: Configurations of the Unpossessed Body. Phoenix Journal of the Classical Association of Canada: Studies in Gender 1, ed. by Alison Keith and Ingrid Holmberg. Toronto/ Buffalo/ London: University of Toronto Press, 2007.
Mann, Nicolas. Petrarch. Past Masters, ed. by Keith Thomas. Oxford/ New York: Oxford University Press, 1984.
Massey, Lesly F. Daughters of God, Subordinates of Men: Women and the Roots of Patriarchy in the New Testament. North Carolina: McFarland & Company., 2015.
McGrath, Elizabeth. Rubens: Subjects from History. Corpus Rubenianum Ludwig Burchard 13(1), ed. by Arnout Balis. 2 vols. London: Harvey Miller Publishers, 1997.
Medoro, Dana. “The Sieve and the Rainbow Serpent: Bleeding Gravity’s Rainbow.” The Journal of Narrative Technique 28, 2 (1998): 186-213.
Mellencamp, Emma H. “A Note on the Costume of Titian’s Flora.” The Art Bulletin 51, 2 (1969): 174-177.
Middleton, Thomas. A Chaste Maid in Cheapside. ed. by Alan Brissenden. New Mermaids, ed. by William C. Carroll, Brian Gibbons, and Tiffany Stern. London/ Oxford/ New York/ New Delhi/ Sydney: Bloomsbury Methuen Drama, 2002.
Miziolek, Jerzy. “Exempla di Giustizia. Tre tavole di cassone di Alvise Donati.” Arte Lombarda 2 (2001): 72-88.
Moffitt Peacock, Martha. “Domesticity in the Public Sphere.” In Saints, Sinners, and Sisters: Gender and Northern Art in Medieval and Early Modern Europe, ed. by Jane L. Carroll and Alison G. Stewart, 44-68. Aldershot/ Burlington: Ashgate, 2003.
Montrose, Louis. The Subject of Elizabeth: Authority, Gender, and Representation. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2006.
Moormann, Eric M. and Wilfried Uitterhoeve. Van Alexandros tot Zenobia. Thema's uit de klassieke geschiedenis in literatuur, muziek, beeldende kunst en theater. 3rd ed. Nijmegen: SUN, 1998.
Mueller, Hans-Friedrich. Roman Religion in Valerius Maximus. London/ New York: Routledge, 2002.
Muñoz Simonds, Peggy. “Sacred and Sexual Motifs in All's Well That Ends Well.” Renaissance Quarterly 42, 1 (1989): 33-59.
Nicholson, Kathleen. “The ideology of feminine ‘virtue’: the vestal virgin in French eighteenth-century allegorical portraiture.” In Portraiture: Facing the Subject, ed. by Joanna Woodall, 52-72. Manchester/New York: Manchester University Press, 1997.
Ogden, Daniel. Drakōn: Dragon Myth and Serpent Cult in the Greek and Roman Worlds. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
Pailler, Jean-Marie. “La vierge et le serpent. De la trivalence à l’ambiguïté.” Mélanges de l’école française de Rome 109, 2 (1997): 513-575.
Parker, Holt N. “Why Were the Vestals Virgins? Or the Chastity of Women and the Safety of the Roman State.” The American Journal of Philology 125, 4 (2004): 563-601.
Paster, Gail Kern. “Leaky Vessels: The Incontinent Women of City Comedy.” Renaissance Drama 18 (1987): 43-65.
Peterson, Kaara. “The Ring’s the Thing: Elizabeth I’s Virgin Knot and All’s Well That Ends Well.” Studies in Philology 113, 1 (2016): 101-131.
Periti, Giancarla. In the Court of Religious Ladies: Art, Vision, and Pleasure in Italian Renaissance Convents. New Haven/ London: Yale University Press, 2016.
Philpot, Elizabeth. “Susanna: Indecent Attraction / Fatal Exposure.” In Believing in the Text: Essays from the Centre for the Study of Literature, Theology and the Arts, University of Glasgow. ed. by Jasper Newlands, George Newlands and Darlene Bird, 75-94. Religions and Discourse 18, ed. by James M. M. Francis. Bern: Peter Lang, 2004.
Plato, Gorgias. trans. from Greek by Walter Hamilton. Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1959.
————. The Republic. trans. from Greek by Desmond Lee. Harmondsworth/ Baltimore: Penguin Classics, 1974.
Pomeroy, Sarah B. Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity. London: Robert Hale & Company, 1976.
Ray, Sid. Mother Queens and Princely Sons: Rogue Madonnas in the Age of Shakespeare. Queenship and Power, ed. by by C. Beem and C. Levin. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
Rex, Richard. The Tudors. Stroud: Amberley Publising, 2012.
Richlin, Amy. “Carrying Water in a Sieve: Class and the Body in Roman Women’s Religion.” In Women and Goddess Traditions in Antiquity and Today, ed. by Karen L. King, Studies in Antiquity & Christianity, 330-374. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997.
Robbins, Vernon K.,Walter S. Mellon and Roy R. Jeal (eds.). The Art of Visual Exegesis: Rhetoric, Texts, Images. Emory Studies in Early Christianity 19, ed. by Vernon K. Robbins and David B. Gowler. Atlanta: SBL Press, 2017.
Roeder, Helen. “The Borders of Filarete's Bronze Doors to St. Peter’s.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 10 (1947), 150-153.
Scheid, John. “Claudia, The Vestal Virgin.” In Roman Women, ed. by Augusto Fraschetti, trans. from Italian by Linda Lappin, 23-33. Chicago/ London: The University of Chicago Press, 2002.
Scholten, Frits. “Recent acquisitions (2004-09) of sculpture at the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.” The Burlington Magazine 151, 1280 (2009): 805-812.
Schubring, Paul. Cassoni: Ein Beitrag zur Profanmalerei im Quattrocento. Leipzig: Verlag von Karl W. Hiersemann, 1915.
Schultz, Celia E. Women’s Religious Activity in the Roman Republic. Studies in the History of Greece and Rome, ed. by Robin Osborne, P.J. Rhodes, and Richard J.A. Talbert. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2006.
————. “On the burial of unchaste Vestal Virgins.” In Rome, Pollution and Propriety: Dirt, Disease and Hygiene in the Eternal City from Antiquity to Modernity, British School at Rome Studies, ed. by Mark Bradley, 122-136. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Shakespeare, William. Romeo and Juliet. Parallel Texts of the First Two Quartos, (Q1) 1597—Q2, 1559. ed. by P.A. Daniel. London: N. Trübner & co., 1874.
————. A Midsummer Nights’s Dream, ed. by William Aldis Wright, Clarendon Press Series Shakespeare Select Plays. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1877.
————. All’s Well that Ends Well. ed. G. K. Hunter. The Arden Shakespeare, ed. by Richard Proudfoot, Ann Thompson, and David Scott Kastan. London/ Oxford/ New York/ New Delhi/ Sydney: Bloomsbury, 1959.
Simons, Patricia. “Women in Frames: The Gaze, the Eye, the Profile in Renaissance Portraiture.” History Workshop 25 (1988): 4-30.
Shire, Helena. A Preface to Spenser. Preface Books, ed. by Maurice Hussey. London/ New York: Longman, 1978.
Smith, David R. Masks of Wedlock: Seventeenth-Century Dutch Marriage Portraiture. Studies in the Fine Arts: Iconography 8, ed. by Linda Seidel. Ann Arbor: Umi Research Press, 1982.
————, Rachel Allison. Vestals Remembered: An Examination of the Myths of Rhea Silvia, Tarpeia, and Tuccia. unpubl. master thesis. Baylor University Texas, 2014.
Staples, Ariadne. From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and Category in Roman Religion. London: Routledge, 1998.
Strong, Roy. The Cult of Elizabeth: Elizabethan Portraiture and Pageantry. Berkeley/ Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977.
————. Gloriana: The Portraits of Queen Elizabeth I. London: Pimlico, 2003.
Stuard, Susan. “The Dominion of Gender: Women’s Fortunes in the High Middle Ages.” In Becoming Visible: Women in European History, ed. by Renate Bridenthal, Claudia Koonz, and Susan Stuard, 2nd. ed., 153-172. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1987.
Takács, Sarolta A. Vestal Virgins, Sibyls, and Matrons: Women in Roman Religion. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2008.
Van Elk, Martine. Early Modern Women’s Writing: Domesticity, Privacy, and the Public Sphere in England and the Dutch Republic. Early Modern Literature in History, ed. by Cedric C. Brown and Andrew Hadfield. London/ New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.
Vannugli, Antonio. “Una ‘Vestale Tuccia’: ‘Puditiciae Testimonium’ del Moretto in Palazzo Taverna a Roma.” Bollettino d’ Arte 47 (1988): 85-90.
Vasari, Giorgio. Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors & Architects, trans. from Italian by Gaston du C. De Vere. vol 5, Andrea da Fiesole to Lorenzo Lotto. London: Philip Lee Warner, 1912-14.
Veenman, René. De klassieke traditie in de Lage Landen. Nijmegen: Uitgeverij Vantilt, 2009.
Viennot, Éliane. “Revisiter la « Querelle des femmes ». Mais de quoi parle-t-on?” In Revisiter la Querelle des femmes. Discours sur l’égalité/inégalité des femmes et des hommes, de 1750 aux lendemains de la Révolution, ed. by Éliane Viennot. Saint-Étienne: Publications de l’Université de Saint-Étienne, 2012.
Vives, Juan Luis. The Education of a Christian Woman: A Sixteenth-Century Manual. ed. and trans. from Latin by Charles Fantazzi. Chicago/London: The University of Chicago Press, 2000.
Walsh, Linda. A Guide to Eighteent-Century Art. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2017.
Warner, Marina. Monuments and Maidens: The Allegory of the Female Form. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1985.
White, Edward L. “The Vestal Virgins of Ancient Rome.” The Classical Weekly 12, 20 (1919): 153-155.
Wiesner, Merry E. Women and Gender in Early Modern Europe. New Approaches to European History, ed. by William Beik and T.C.W. Blanning. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch. Rome’s Vestal Virgins: A study of Rome’s Vestal priestesses in the late Republic and early Empire. London/ New York: Routledge, 2006.
Williams, Deanne. “Dido, Queen of England.” ELH 73, 1 (2006): 31-59.
Woolf, Virginia. The Selected Works of Virginia Woolf. Wordsworth Library Collection. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions Limited, 2007.
Worsfold, Cato T. The History of the Vestal Virgins of Rome. 2nd ed. London: Rider & Co. Paternoster House, E.C, 1934.
Yates, Frances A. Selected Works. vol. 5, Astraea. London/ New York: Routledge, 2003.
Catalogues
Ann Arbor/ Wellesley 2002
Dixon, Annette (ed.). Women Who Ruled: Queens, Goddesses, Amazons in Renaissance and Baroque Art. exh. cat. Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Museum of Art/ Wellesley, David Museum and Cultural Center. London: Merrell, 2002.
Antwerpen 2007-2008
Katlijne van der Stighelen, “‘Vrouwen als boeketten verpakt’ beeld en bekentenis van de vrouw in de kunst.” In Vrouwenportretten uit de collectie Mayer van den Bergh, ed. by Annemie Van den Eynden, exh. cat. Antwerpen, Museum Mayer van den Bergh, 47-63. Antwerpen: Museum Mayer van den Bergh, 2007.
Baltimore/ Dallas/ Basel 1995
Reeder, Ellen D (ed.). Pandora: Women in Classical Greece. exh. cat., Baltimore, The Walters Art Gallery/ Dallas, The Dallas Museum of Art, Basel, Antikenmuseum Basel und Sammlung Ludwig. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995.
New York 2008
Koeppe, Wolfram and Annamaria Giusti. Art of the Royal Court: Treasures in Pietre Dure from the Palaces of Europe. exh. cat., New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New Haven/ London: Yale University Press, 2008.
New York/ Fort Worth 2008
Edwards, Nancy. “144. The Vestal Virgin Tuccia.” Art and Love in Renaissance Italy, ed. by Andrea Bayer, exh. cat., New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art/ Fort Worth, Kimbell Art Museum, 313-314. New Haven/ London: Yale University Press, 2008.
Nijmegen 1985
Bange, Petty, Ton Brandenbarg, Grietje Dresen, et al. Tussen heks & heilige: Het vrouwbeeld op de drempel van de moderne tijd, 15de/16de eeuw. exh. cat., Nijmegen, Commanderie van Sint-Jan. Nijmegen: SUN, 1985.
Rome 2002
Ricci, Emiliana. “La cosidetta ‘Alcova Torlonia.’” In Il Museo di Roma racconta la città, by Rossella Leone, Federica Pirani, Maria Elisa Tittoni et al., exh. cat., Rome, Museo di Roma, 324-325. Rome: Gangemi Editore, 2002.
Viterbo 1998-1999
Lo Bianco, Anna and Valter Curzi (eds.). Domenico Corvi. exh. cat., Viterbo, Museo della Rocca Albornoz. Rome: Viviani arte, 1998.
Washington 1990
Russell, Helen Diane and Bernadine Barnes. Eva/Ave: Woman in Renaissance and Baroque Prints. exh. cat. Washington, National Gallery of Art. New York: The Feminist Press at the City University of New York, 1990.
Washington 2001
Brown, David Alan (ed.). Virtue and Beauty: Leonardo's Ginevra de' Benci and Renaissance Portraits of Women. exh. cat., Washington, National Gallery of Art. New Jersey/ Oxfordshire: Princeton University Press, 2001.
Websites
Augustine. “The City of God (Book X).” trans. from Latin by Marcus Dods. New Advent: last access on 5th of April, 2018, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/120110.htm.
————. “The City of God (Book XXII).” trans. from Latin by Marcus Dods. New Advent: last access on 5th of April, 2018, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/120122.htm.
Bible Gateway. “Susanna’s Beauty Attracts Two Elders.” Bible Gateway: last access on the 30th of July, 2018, https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Daniel+13&version=RSVCE;KJV.
British Museum. “Elizabetha Angliae et Hiberniae Reginae &c.” British museum: last access the on the 25th of July, 2018, https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_obj….
Callmann, Ellen and J.W. Taylor, “Cassone [It.: ‘chest’].” Grove Art Online: last access on the 13th of August, 2018, https://doi-org.kuleuven.ezproxy.kuleuven.be/10.1093/gao/9781884446054….
Cats, Jacob. “Houwelick, Dat is het gansche gelegenheyt des echten-staets.” dbnl: last access on the 14th of August, 2018, https://www.dbnl.org/tekst/cats001houw01_01/cats001houw01_01_0005.php.
Collins, Billy. “Death of Allegory,” Poetry Foundation, last access on the 12th of August, 2017, https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poetrymagazine/poems/37694/the-death-o….
Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Roman antiquities II.69.1-3. trans. from Greek by Earnest Cary. Internet Archive: last access on the 16th of April, 2018, https://archive.org/stream/romanantiquities01dionuoft/romanantiquities0….
Drummond, Anna. “Marriage and murder: two wedding chests with representations of Judith.” Art Journal of the National Gallery of Victoria 53 (2014): last access on the 13th of August, 2018, https://www.ngv.vic.gov.au.
Encyclopaedia Britannica (eds.). “Paul V.” Encyclopaedia Brittanica: last access on 12th of April, 2018, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-V.
Encyclopaedia Britannica (eds.). “François, duc d’Anjou.” Encyclopaedia Brittanica: last access on 12th of June, 2018, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Francois-duc-dAnjou.
Fondazione Zeri. “Suttermans Giusto, Ritratto di Vittoria Della Rovere in veste di Tuccia.” Fondazione Zeri: last access on 11th of May, 2018, http://catalogo.fondazionezeri.unibo.it/.
Fraser, Antonia. “Mary, Queen of Scotland.” Encyclopaedia Brittanica: last access on 12th of June, 2018, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mary-queen-of-Scotland.
Garbaye, Linda. “Female and Male Activism for Women’s Rights in Eighteenth-Century America and France.” Aurea mediocritas 72 (2015): last access on the 13th of August, 2018, https://journals.openedition.org/1718/371.
Gellius, Aulus. Attic Nights. I.12. trans. from Latin by John C. Rolfe. Perseus Digital Library: last access on the 9th of February, 2018, http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/.
Goldenberg Stoppato, Lisa. “Suttermans [Susterman; Sustermans; Sutterman], Giusto [Josse; Juste; Justus].” Grove Art Online (2003): last access on 15 May 2018, http://www.oxfordartonline.com.
Gordon, Richard. “Vesta. Vestals.” Oxford Classical Dictionary: last access on the 18th of February, 2018, classics.oxfordre.com.
Heil, Axel, Margrit Brehm and Roberto Ohrt. “Warburg’s Terminology.” ZKM, last accessed the 13th of August, 2018: https://zkm.de/en/event/2016/09/aby-warburg-mnemosyne-bilderatlas/warbu….
Hollingsworth, Mary. The Medici. London: Head of Zeus, 2017, n. p., Google books: last access on the 11th of May, 2018, books.google.be
Koninklijke Bibliotheek Nederland. “The Hague, KB, 71 E 68,” Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts, last access on 5th of April, 2018, http://manuscripts.kb.nl/show/manuscript/71+E+68.
Linderski, J. “Palladium.” Oxford Classical Dictionary: last access on the 18th of February, 2018, classics.oxfordre.com.
Margolin, Elaine. “7 female artists you don’t know — but should.” The Washington Post (the 11th of February, 2017): last access on the 9th of August, 2018, https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/books/7-female-artists-you….
Morrill, John S. and Stephen J. Greenblatt. “Elizabeth I: Queen of England.” Encyclopaedia Brittanica: last access on 12th of June, 2018, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Elizabeth-I.
Nordberg, Jenny. The Underground Girls of Kabul: In Search of a Hidden Resistance in Afghanistan. New York: Penguin Randhom House, 2015, n. p., Google Books: last access on the 14th of August, 2018, books.google.be
Ogilvie, Robert Maxwell. “Livy.” Encyclopaedia Britannica: last access on the 18th of April, 2018, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Livy.
Ovid. Fasti. VI.459-460. trans. from Latin by James G. Frazer. Theoi Texts Library: last access on the 25th of February, 2018, http://www.theoi.com/Text/OvidFasti6.html.
Palazzo Barberini. “Sala Corvi.” Galleria Barberini: last access on the 12th of April, 2018, http://galleriabarberini.beniculturali.it/index.php?es/176/sala-corvi.
Pietersz. Pers, Dirck. “Cesare Ripa's Iconologia of Uytbeeldinghen des Verstants.” dbnl: last access on the 14th of August, 2018, https://www.dbnl.org/tekst/pers001cesa01_01/.
Phillips, Robert. “Fordicidia.” Oxford Classical Dictionary: last access on the 18th of February, 2018, classics.oxfordre.com.
Pliny the Elder. Historia Naturalis, 28.3(2). trans. from Latin by John Bostock, M.D., F.R.S. H.T. Riley. Perseus Digital Library: last access on the 12th of August, 2018,
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0….
Plutarch. Numa. X. trans. from Greek by Bernadotte Perrin. Perseus Digital Library: last access on the 7th of March, 2018, http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/.
Plutarch. Quaestiones Romanae. I. trans. from Greek, ed. by William W. Godwin. Perseus Digital Library: last access on the 15th of February, 2018, http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/.
Pope, Alexander. “Eloise to Abelard.” Poetry Foundation: last access on the 13th of February, 2018, https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/44892/eloisa-to-abelard.
Rijksmuseum. “Tuccia bewijst haar onschuld, Theodoor Galle, naar Jan van der Straet, 1653 - 1654.” Rijksmuseum: last access on the 12th of April, 2018, http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.581818.
Rijksmuseum, “Vestaalse maagd Tuccia draagt water in een vergiet om haar onschuld te bewijzen, Jacob Matham, after Bartholomeus Spranger, 1608,” Rijksmuseum: last access on the 12th of April, 2018, http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.337100.
Victoria & Albert Museum. “Tuccia (Chastity).” V&A: last access on the 7th of April, 2018, http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O125590/tuccia-chastity-tempera-paint….
