Rechtvaardigheid voor de Rohingya: biedt het Internationaal Strafhof soelaas?
“We are going to kill you this way, by raping you”, zei een Myanmarese soldaat tegen een Rohingya meisje, vlak voor ze werd verkracht en gedood. Sinds augustus 2017 zijn duizenden Rohingya vrouwen het slachtoffer geworden van seksueel geweld door de Tatmadaw, het Myanmarese leger. Een recente studie toont aan dat het vervolgd zou kunnen worden voor het Internationaal Strafhof in Den Haag als misdaden tegen de mensheid, oorlogsmisdaden en zelfs genocide.
De Rohingya is een staatloze, islamitische minderheid die leeft in het westen van Myanmar. Reeds decennialang worden ze onderdrukt en zijn ze slachtoffer van mensenrechtenschendingen. De Verenigde Naties omschrijven de Rohingya als ‘een van de meest vervolgde minderheden ter wereld’. In augustus 2017 escaleerde het geweld in de zogenaamde clearance operations. Dat waren militaire operaties van de Tatmadaw, gesteund door de voormalige Myanmarese overheid, waarbij duizenden Rohingya werden gedood. De operaties waren een reactie op enkele terroristische aanvallen van ARSA, een groepering die de belangen van de Rohingya verdedigt. Om te ontkomen aan het geweld, zijn meer dan 800.000 Rohingya gevlucht naar buurlanden, waaronder Bangladesh.
Rapporten van mensenrechtenorganisaties tonen aan dat verkrachting en seksueel geweld een belangrijk wapen waren in dit conflict. Volgens de autoriteiten in Bangladesh is 90 procent van de Rohingya vrouwen in de vluchtelingenkampen slachtoffer van verkrachting. Het merendeel van de verkrachtingen waren groepsverkrachtingen. Er zijn incidenten gerapporteerd waarbij tot wel 40 vrouwen tegelijk werden verkracht. Verkrachtingen vonden vaak plaats in openbare ruimtes, waarbij familieleden en dorpsgenoten gedwongen werden om toe te kijken. De vrouwen werden daarbij vaak verbaal vernederd en gemutileerd. De slachtoffers waren voornamelijk vrouwen van vruchtbare leeftijd, tussen 13 en 25 jaar. Naast verkrachting is de Tatmadaw ook verantwoordelijk voor andere vormen van seksueel geweld, zoals genitale verminking en seksuele slavernij. Zo werden er Rohingya vrouwen ontvoerd en opgesloten in militaire kampen, waar ze werden verkracht op regelmatige basis.
De studie gaat na of die feiten vervolgd zouden kunnen worden voor het Internationaal Strafhof in Den Haag. Dat is een permanente, internationale rechtbank waar individuen worden vervolgd en berecht voor internationale misdrijven, waaronder genocide, misdaden tegen de mensheid en oorlogsmisdaden. De juridische grondslag van het Internationaal Strafhof is het Statuut van Rome, dat de verschillende misdrijven omschrijft. Op 14 november 2019 heeft het Hof een onderzoek geopend naar de misdrijven die tegen de Rohingya zijn gepleegd. Het onderzoek is nog steeds lopende. Het blijft een open vraag of het seksueel geweld ook zal worden vervolgd, maar de Procureur heeft aangekondigd dat eender welk misdrijf gepleegd op het grondgebied van een lidstaat kan worden onderzocht. De Myanmarese overheid ontkende tot nu toe alle aantijgingen.
Myanmar is geen partij bij het Statuut van Rome
Het Statuut van Rome vormde het uitgangspunt voor de studie naar de bevoegdheid van het Internationaal Strafhof over de situatie van de Rohingya. Dat werd aangevuld met andere officiële documenten van het Hof, rechtspraak van het Hof en rechtspraak van andere internationale straftribunalen.
Het Internationaal Strafhof heeft enkel territoriale bevoegdheid over misdrijven die zijn gepleegd op het grondgebied van een van haar lidstaten, namelijk staten die het Statuut van Rome hebben ondertekend. Myanmar is echter geen partij bij het Statuut van Rome. Toch heeft het Hof zich bevoegd verklaard over de situatie van de Rohingya op grond van het lidmaatschap van Bangladesh. Volgens het Hof is er sprake van een grensoverschrijdende situatie, omdat vele Rohingya onder andere werden gedeporteerd naar Bangladesh. Seksueel geweld is echter doorgaans niet grensoverschrijdend. Nochtans heeft de studie aangetoond dat het seksueel geweld kan worden beschouwd als deel van het grotere misdrijf ‘vervolging’. De Tatmadaw gebruikte namelijk seksueel geweld als een middel om de Rohingya te vervolgen en hen het land uit te drijven. Verder kan seksueel geweld ook als contextueel element in aanmerking worden genomen, zelfs als het niet onder de bevoegdheid van het Hof valt.
Welke internationale misdrijven werden er gepleegd?
Het Hof is enkel bevoegd als er een internationaal misdrijf is gepleegd, zoals omschreven in het Statuut van Rome. Volgens de studie is er sprake van genocide. Seksueel geweld wordt niet zo duidelijk geassocieerd met genocide als moord, maar kan wel degelijk de vernietiging van een groep tot gevolg hebben. Zo hadden de verkrachtingen vaak de dood tot gevolg en overlevenden liepen lichamelijke letsels of mentale trauma’s op waardoor ze niet langer in staat zijn om zich voort te planten. Geweld is pas genocidaal als het is gepleegd met de bedoeling een nationale, etnische, raciale of godsdienstige groep als zodanig te vernietigen. De Rohingya vormen een etnische en religieuze groep. Ze zijn moslim in een Boeddhistische samenleving, hebben een donkerdere huid dan andere Myanmarezen, belijden een andere cultuur en spreken een andere taal. Verschillende elementen, zoals de bovenstaande uitspraak van een soldaat, lijken te suggereren dat de Myanmarese overheid en de Tatmadaw de bedoeling hadden om de Rohingya te vernietigen.
Daarnaast kan het seksueel geweld worden vervolgd als misdaden tegen de mensheid. Het Statuut van Rome vereist daarvoor dat het geweld onderdeel is van een wijdverbreide of stelselmatige aanval gericht tegen een burgerbevolking. De aanval tegen de Rohingya was duidelijk zowel wijdverbreid als stelselmatig. In totaal werden er meer dan 10.000 Rohingya gedood, meer dan 800.000 Rohingya sloegen op de vlucht en meer dan 200 nederzettingen werden met de grond gelijkgemaakt. De Tatmadaw volgde een vergelijkbare aanpak in de verschillende Rohingya dorpen, wat wijst op een duidelijk patroon. Het seksueel geweld maakte deel uit van die aanval. Ook is er sprake van oorlogsmisdaden, gelet op het intern gewapend conflict dat zich afspeelde tussen het Myanmarese leger en ARSA. Tijdens gewapende conflicten is het internationaal humanitair recht van toepassing en zijn bepaalde handelingen verboden, waaronder seksueel geweld.
Tijdens oorlog is seksueel geweld een wapen en niet slechts een gevolg. Het moet dus even serieus worden genomen als andere misdrijven. Volgens het recht kan het seksueel geweld tegen de Rohingya vervolgd worden. Of dat volgens de Procureur en het Internationaal Strafhof kan, valt af te wachten. Zal rechtvaardigheid zegevieren?
Bibliografie
LEGISLATION
UN General Assembly, Statute of the International Court of Justice, 26 June 1945.
United Nations, Charter of the United Nations, 24 October 1945.
UN General Assembly, Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 9 December 1948.
UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948.
International Committee of the Red Cross, Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field (First Geneva Convention), 12 August 1949.
International Committee of the Red Cross, Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea (Second Geneva Convention), 12 August 1949.
International Committee of the Red Cross, Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (Third Geneva Convention), 12 August 1949.
International Committee of the Red Cross, Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (Fourth Geneva Convention), 12 August 1949.
UN General Assembly, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 16 December 1966.
UN General Assembly, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 16 December 1966.
International Committee of the Red Cross, Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II), 8 June 1977.
UN General Assembly, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 18 December 1979.
Genocide Convention Implementation Act of 1987, S. 1851, s. 1093.
UN General Assembly, Convention on the Rights of the Child, 20 November 1989.
UN Security Council, Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, 25 May 1993.
UN Security Council, Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Genocide and Other Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of Rwanda and Rwandan Citizens Responsible for Genocide and Other Such Violations Committed in the Territory of Neighbouring States, between 1 January 1994 and 31 December 1994, 8 November 1994.
UN General Assembly, Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 17 July 1998. UN Security Council, Security Council resolution 1593, 31 March 2005, S/RES/1593. UN Security Council, Security Council resolution 1970, 26 February 2011, S/RES/1970.
UN General Assembly, Situation of human rights of Rohingya Muslims and other minorities in Myanmar, 5 December 2017, A/HRC/S-27/L.1.
OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS OF THE ICC
“Article 6, The crime of genocide: discussion paper proposed by the Coordinator”, Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court, 25 February 1999, PCNICC/1999/WGEC/RT.1.
“Proceedings of the Preparatory Commission at its first session (16-26 February 1999)”, Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court, 2 March 1999, PCNICC/1999/L.3/Rev.1.
ICC Elements of Crimes, adopted at Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, First session (3-10 September 2002), ICC-ASP/1/3 and Corr. 1 (2002).
ICC Rules of Procedure and Evidence, adopted at Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, First session (3-10 September 2002), ICC-ASP/1/3 and Corr. 1 (2002).
“Policy Paper on Sexual and Gender-Based Crimes”, ICC (Office of the Prosecutor), June 2014.
“Prosecution’s Request for a Ruling on Jurisdiction under Article 19(3) of the Statute”, ICC (President of the Pre-Trial Division), 9 April 2018, ICC-RoC46(3)-01/18-1.
“Decision on the “Prosecution’s Request for a Ruling on Jurisdiction under Article 19(3) of the Statute””, ICC (Pre-Trial Chamber I), 6 September 2018, ICC-RoC46(3)-01/18.
“Request for authorisation of an investigation pursuant to article 15”, ICC (Pre-Trial Chamber III), 4 July 2019, ICC-01/19.
“Decision Pursuant to Article 15 of the Rome Statute on the Authorisation of an Investigation into the Situation in the People’s Republic of Bangladesh/Republic of the Union of Myanmar”, ICC (Pre-Trial Chamber III), 14 November 2019, ICC-01-19.
CASE LAW
Israel v. Eichmann, “Judgment”, District Court of Jerusalem, 12 December 1961, 40/61.
Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic, “Decision on the defence motion for interlocutory appeal on jurisdiction”, ICTY (Appeals Chamber), 2 October 1995, IT-94-1-A.
Prosecutor v. Karadzic and Mladic, “Review of the indictments pursuant to Rule 61 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence”, ICTY (Trial Chamber), 11 July 1996, IT-95-5-R61 and IT- 95-18-R61.
Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic, “Opinion and Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber), 7 May 1997, IT- 94-1-T.
Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu, “Amended Indictment”, ICTR, 17 June 1997, ICTR-96-4-I.
Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu, “Judgment”, ICTR (Trial Chamber I), 2 September 1998, ICTR-96-4-T.
Prosecutor v. Zejnil Delalic, Zdravko Mucic, Hazim Delic and Esad Landzo, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber), 16 November 1998, IT-96-21-T.
Prosecutor v. Anto Furundzija, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber), 10 December 1998, IT- 95-17/1-T.
Prosecutor v. Clément Kayishema and Obed Ruzindana, “Judgment”, ICTR (Trial Chamber II), 21 May 1999, ICTR-95-1-T.
Prosecutor v. Zlatko Aleksovski, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber), 25 June 1999, IT-95- 14/1-T.
Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Appeals Chamber), 15 July 1999, IT-94-1-A.
Prosecutor v. Georges Anderson Nderubumwe Rutaganda, “Judgment and Sentence”, ICTR (Trial Chamber I), 6 December 1999, ICTR-96-3-T.
Prosecutor v. Goran Jelisic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber), 14 December 1999, IT-95- 10-T.
Prosecutor v. Zoran Kupreskic et al., “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber), 14 January 2000, IT-95-16-T.
Prosecutor v. Alfred Musema, “Judgment and Sentence”, ICTR (Trial Chamber I), 27 January 2000, ICTR-96-13-A.
Prosecutor v. Tihomir Blaskic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber), 3 March 2000, IT-95-14- T.
Prosecutor v. Anto Furundzija, “Judgment”, ICTY (Appeals Chamber), 21 July 2000, IT-95- 17/1-A.
Prosecutor v. Dragoljub Kunarac, Radomir Kovac and Zoran Vukovic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber), 22 February 2001, IT-96-23-T and IT-96-23/1-T.
Prosecutor v. Dario Kordic and Mario Cerkez, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber), 26 February 2001, IT-95-14/2-T.
Prosecutor v. Goran Jelisic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Appeals Chamber), 5 July 2001, IT-95-10-A.
Prosecutor v. Stevan Todorovic, “Sentencing Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber), 31 July 2001, IT-95-9/1-S.
Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber), 2 August 2001, IT-98-33- T.
Prosecutor v. Miraslov Kvocka et al., “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber), 2 November 2001, IT-98-30/1-T.
Prosecutor v. Milorad Krnojelac, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber II), 15 March 2002, IT- 97-25-T.
Prosecutor v. Dragoljub Kunarac, Radomir Kovac and Zoran Vukovic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Appeals Chamber), 12 June 2002, IT-96-23 and IT-96-23/1-A.
Prosecutor v. Elizaphan and Gérard Ntakirutimana, “Judgment and Sentence”, ICTR (Trial Chamber I), 21 February 2003, ICTR-96-10 and ICTR-96-17-T.
Prosecutor v. Mladen Naletilic and Vinko Martinovic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber), 31 March 2003, IT-98-34-T.
Prosecutor v. Laurent Semanza, “Judgment and Sentence”, ICTR (Trial Chamber III), 15 May 2003, ICTR-97-20-T.
Prosecutor v. Georges Anderson Nderubumwe Rutaganda, “Judgment”, ICTR (Appeals Chamber), 26 May 2003, ICTR-96-3-A.
Prosecutor v. Milomir Stakic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber II), 31 July 2003, IT-97-24- T.
Prosecutor v. Blagoje Simic, Miroslav Tadic and Simo Zaric, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber II), 17 October 2003, IT-95-9-T.
Prosecutor v. Juvénal Kajelijeli, “Judgment and Sentence”, ICTR (Trial Chamber II), 1 December 2003, ICTR-98-44A-T.
Prosecutor v. Ferdinand Nahimana, Jean-Bosco Barayagwiza and Hassan Ngeze, “Judgment and Sentence”, ICTR (Trial Chamber I), 3 December 2003, ICTR-99-52-T.
Prosecutor v. André Ntagerura et al., “Judgment and Sentence”, ICTR (Trial Chamber III), 25 February 2004, ICTR-99-46-T.
Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Appeals Chamber), 19 April 2004, IT-98-33-A.
Prosecutor v. Sylvestre Gacumbtsi, “Judgment”, ICTR (Trial Chamber III), 17 June 2004, ICTR-2001-64-T.
Prosecutor v. Emmanuel Ndindabahizi, “Judgment”, ICTR (Trial Chamber I), 15 July 2004, ICTR-2001-71-I.
Prosecutor v. Tihomir Blaskic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Appeals Chamber), 29 July 2004, IT-95- 14-A.
Prosecutor v. Radoslav Brdanin, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber II), 1 September 2004, IT- 99-36-T.
Prosecutor v. Vidoje Blagojevic and Dragan Jokic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber I, Section A), 17 January 2005, IT-02-60-T.
Prosecutor v. Miroslav Kvocka et al., “Judgment”, ICTY (Appeals Chamber), 28 February 2005, IT-98-30/1-A.
Prosecutor v. Mikaeli Muhimana, “Judgment”, ICTR (Trial Chamber III), 28 April 2005, ICTR-95-1B-T.
Prosecutor v. Laurent Semanza, “Judgment”, ICTR (Appeals Chamber), 20 May 2005, ICTR- 97-20-A.
Prosecutor v. Aloys Simba, “Judgment and Sentence”, ICTR (Trial Chamber I), 13 December 2005, ICTR-01-76-T.
Situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, “Judgment on the Prosecutor’s appeal against the decision of Pre-Trial Chamber I entitled “Decision on the Prosecutor’s Application for Warrants of Arrest, Article 58””, ICC (Appeals Chamber), 13 July 2006, ICC-01/04.
Prosecutor v. Momcilo Krajisnik, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber I), 27 September 2006, IT-00-39-T.
Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, “Decision on the confirmation of charges”, ICC (Pre- Trial Chamber I), 29 January 2007, ICC-01/04-01/06.
Prosecutor v. Radoslav Brdanin, “Judgment”, ICTY (Appeals Chamber), 3 April 2007, IT-99- 36-A.
Prosecutor v. Ahmad Muhammad Harun and Ali Muhammad Ali Abd-Al-Rahman, “Decision on the Prosecution Application under Article 58(7) of the Statute”, ICC (Pre-Trial Chamber I), 27 April 2007, ICC-02/05-01/07.
Prosecutor v. Vidoje Blagojevic and Dragan Jokic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Appeals Chamber), 9 May 2007, IT-02-60-A.
Prosecutor v. Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu, “Judgment”, SCSL (Trial Chamber II), 20 June 2007, SCSL-04-16-T.
Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, “Decision Regarding the Practices Used to Prepare and Familiarise Witnesses for Giving Testimony at Trial”, ICC (Trial Chamber I), 30 November 2007, ICC-01/04-01/06.
Prosecutor v. Ramush Haradinaj, Idriz Balaj and Lahi Brahimaj, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber I), 3 April 2008, IT-04-84-T.
Prosecutor v. Rasim Delic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber I), 15 September 2008, IT-04- 83-T.
Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, “Decision on the confirmation of charges”, ICC (Pre-Trial Chamber I), 30 September 2008, ICC-01/04-01/07.
Prosecutor v. Milan Milutinovic et al., “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber), 26 February 2009, IT-05-87-T.
Prosecutor v. Omar Al Bashir, “Decision on the Prosecution’s Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir”, ICC (Pre-Trial Chamber I), 4 March 2009, ICC-02/05-01/09.
Prosecutor v. Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, “Decision Pursuant to Article 61(7)(a) and (b) of the Rome Statute on the Charges of the Prosecutor Against Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo”, ICC (Pre- Trial Chamber II), 15 June 2009, ICC-01/05-01/08.
Prosecutor v. Vujadin Popovic et al., “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber II), 10 June 2010, IT- 05-88-T.
Prosecutor v. Omar Al bashir, “Second Warrant of Arrest for Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir”, ICC (Pre-Trial Chamber I), 12 July 2010, ICC-02/05-01/09.
Prosecutor v. Guek Eav Kaing, “Judgment”, ECCC (Trial Chamber), 26 July 2010, 001/18-07- 2007/ECCC/TC.
Prosecutor v. Augustin Ndindiliyimana et al., “Judgment and Sentence”, ICTR (Trial Chamber II), 17 May 2011, ICTR-00-56-T.
Prosecutor v. Pauline Nyiramasuhuko et al., “Judgment and Sentence”, ICTR (Trial Chamber II), 24 June 2011, ICTR-98-42-T.
Prosecutor v. Callixte Mbarushimana, “Decision on the “Defence Challenge to the Jurisdiction of the Court””, ICC (Pre-Trial Chamber I), 26 October 2011, ICC-01/04-01/10.
Prosecutor v. Callixte Mbarushimana, “Decision on the confirmation of charges”, ICC (Pre- Trial Chamber I), 16 December 2011, ICC-01/04-01/10.
Prosecutor v. Abdel Raheem Muhammad Hussein, “Decision on the Prosecutor’s application under article 58 relating to Abdel Raheem Muhammad Hussein”, ICC (Pre-Trial Chamber I), 1 March 2012, ICC-02/05-01/12.
Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, “Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute”, ICC (Trial Chamber I), 14 March 2012, ICC-01/04-01/06.
Prosecutor v. Charles Ghankay Taylor, “Judgment”, SCSL (Trial Chamber II), 18 May 2012, SCSL-03-01-T.
Prosecutor v. Laurent Gbagbo, “Decision on the “Corrigendum of the challenge to the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court on the basis of articles 12(3), 19(2), 21(3), 55 and 59 of the Rome Statute filed by the Defence for President Gbagbo (ICC02/11-01/11-129)””, ICC (Pre-Trial Chamber I), 15 August 2012, ICC-02/11-01/11.
Prosecutor v. Mathieu Ngudjolo, “Judgment pursuant to article 74 of the Statute”, ICC (Trial Chamber II), 18 December 2012, ICC-01/04-02/12.
Prosecutor v. Mico Stanisic and Stojan Zupljanin, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber II), 27 March 2013, IT-08-91-T.
Prosecutor v. Radovan Karadzic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Appeals Chamber), 11 July 2013, IT-9S- SI18-AR98bis.l.
Prosecutor v. Nikola Sainovic, Nebojsa Pavkovic, Vladimir Lazarevic and Sreten Lukic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Appeals Chamber), 23 January 2014, IT-05-87-A.
Prosecutor v. Vlastimir Dordevic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Appeals Chamber), 27 January 2014, IT-05-87/1-A.
Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga, “Judgment pursuant to article 74 of the Statute”, ICC (Trial Chamber II), 7 March 2014, ICC-01/04-01/07.
Prosecutor v. Laurent Gbagbo, “Decision on the confirmation of charges against Laurent Gbagbo”, ICC (Pre-Trial Chamber I), 12 June 2014, ICC-02/11-01/11.
Prosecutor v. Vujadin Popovic et al., “Judgment”, ICTY (Appeals Chamber), 30 January 2015, IT-05-88-A.
Prosecutor v. Zdravko Tolimir, “Judgment”, ICTY (Appeals Chamber), 8 April 2015, IT-05- 88/2-A.
Prosecutor v. Pauline Nyiramasuhuko et al., ICTR (Appeals Chamber), 14 December 2015, ICTR-98-42-A.
Prosecutor v. Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, “Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute”, ICC (Trial Chamber III), 21 March 2016, ICC-01/05-01/08.
Prosecutor v. Dominic Ongwen, “Decision on the confirmation of charges against Dominic Ongwen”, ICC (Pre-Trial Chamber II), 23 March 2016, ICC-02/04-01/15.
Prosecutor v. Radovan Karadzic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber), 24 March 2016, IT-95- 5/18-T.
Prosecutor v. Ratko Mladic, “Judgment”, ICTY (Trial Chamber), 22 November 2017, IT-09- 92-T.
Prosecutor v. Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, “Judgment on the appeal of Mr Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo against Trial Chamber III’s “Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute””, ICC (Appeals Chamber), 8 June 2018, ICC-01/05-01/08 A.
Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, “Judgment”, ICC (Trial Chamber VI), 8 July 2019, ICC-01/04- 02/06.
Prosecutor v. Al Hassan Ag Abdoul Aziz Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud, “Rectificatif à la Décision relative à la confirmation des charges portées contre Al Hassan Ag Abdoul Aziz Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud”, ICC (Pre-Trial Chamber I), 13 November 2019, ICC-01/12-01/18.
The Gambia v. Myanmar, “Request for the indication of provisional measures”, ICJ, 23 January 2020.
Prosecutor v. Dominic Ongwen, “Trial Judgment”, ICC (Trial Chamber IX), 4 February 2021, ICC-02/04-01/15.
JURISPRUDENCE
AKHTER, S. and KUSAKABE, K., “Gender-based Violence among documented Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh”, Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 2014, Vol. 21 No. 2, 225-246.
AMBOS, K., “Prosecuting International Crimes at the National and International Level: Between Justice and Realpolitik” in KALECK, W., RATNER, M., SINGELNSTEIN, T. and WEISS, P. (eds.), International Prosecution of Human Rights Crimes, Springer, Berlin, 2007, 55-68.
AMBOS, K., “What does ‘intent to destroy’ in genocide mean?”, International Review of the Red Cross, 2009, Vol. 91 No. 876, 833-858.
ARBOUR, L. and BERGSMO, M., “Conspicuous Absence of Jurisdictional Overreach” in VON HEBEL, H., LAMMERS, J. and SCHUKKING, J. (eds.), Reflections on the International Criminal Court, T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague, 1999, 129-140.
ARNOLD, R., “The mens rea of genocide under the Statute of the International Criminal Court”, Criminal Law Forum, 2003, Vol. 14 No. 2, 127-151.
ARRABAL WARD, C.E., Wartime Sexual Violence at the International Level: A Legal Perspective, Brill Nijhoff, Leiden, 2018, 262 p.
ASKIN, K.D., “A Decade of the Development of Gender Crimes in International Courts and Tribunals: 1993 to 2003”, Human Rights Brief, 2004, Vol. 11 No. 3, 16-19.
ASKIN, K.D., “Gender crimes: jurisprudence in the ICTR: positive developments”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, 2005, Vol. 3 No. 4, 1007-1018.
ASKIN, K.D., War Crimes Against Women: Prosecution in International Tribunals, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Hague, 1997, 455 p.
AYENI, V.O. and OLONG, M.A., “Opportunities and Challenges to the UN Security Council Referral under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court”, African Journal of International and Comparative Law, 2017, Vol. 25 No. 2, 239-260.
BAIG, L., JARVIS, M., MARTIN SALGADO, E. and PINZAUTI, G., “Contextualizing Sexual Violence: Selection of Crimes” in BRAMMERTZ, S. and JARVIS, M. (eds.), Prosecuting Conflict-Related Sexual Violence at the ICTY, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2016, 172-219.
BALA, A. and BSMRSTU, G., “Rohingya Crisis: Sexual Violence against Women and Adolescent Girls in Myanmar”, October 2018, 1-11.
BARENDRECHT, J.M., VRANKEN, J.B.M., GIESEN, I., BORGERS, M.J., VAN DER BURG, W., TIJSSEN, H.E.B., VAN ROERMUND, G.C.G.J. and VAN BOOM, W.H., “Methoden van rechtswetenschap: komen we verder?”, Nederlands Juristenblad, 2004, Vol. 79 No. 28, 1-19.
BEDONT, B., “Gender-Specific provisions in the Statute of the International Criminal Court” in LATTANZI, F. and SCHABAS, W.A. (eds.), Essays on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Vol. I, Il Sirente, Ripa Fagnano Alto, 1999, 183-210.
BITTI, G., “Article 21 of the Statute of the International Criminal Court and the treatment of sources of law in the jurisprudence of the ICC” in STAHN, C. and SLUITER, G. (eds.), The emerging practice of the International Criminal Court, Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2009, 285-304.
BOON, K., “Rape and Forced Pregnancy under the ICC Statute: Human Dignity, Autonomy, and Consent”, Columbia Human Rights Law Review, 2001, Vol. 32 No. 3, 625-676.
BOOT, M., Genocide, Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes, Intersentia, Antwerp, 2002, 708 p.
BRADY, H., “The power of precedents: using the case law of the ad hoc international criminal tribunals and hybrid courts in adjudicating sexual violence and gender-based crimes at the ICC”, Australian Journal of Human Rights, 2012, Vol. 18 No. 2, 75-108.
CAMERON, I., “Jurisdiction and Admissibility Issues under the ICC Statute” in MCGOLDRICK, D., ROWE, P. and DONNELLY, E. (eds.), The Permanent International Criminal Court: Legal and Policy Issues, Hart Publishing, Oxford, 2004, 65-94.
CAMPANARO, J., “Women, War, and International Law: The Historical Treatment of Gender- Based War Crimes”, Georgetown Law Journal, 2001, Vol. 89 No. 8, 2557-2592.
CAMPBELL, K., “The Gender of Transitional Justice: Law, Sexual Violence and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia”, International Journal of Transitional Justice, 2007, Vol. 1 No. 3, 411-432.
CHEESMAN, N., “How in Myanmar “National Races” Came to Surpass Citizenship and Exclude Rohingya”, Journal of contemporary Asia, 2017, Vol. 47 No. 3, 461-483.
CHESTERMAN, S., “An Altogether Different Order: Defining the Elements of Crimes Against Humanity”, Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law, 2000, Vol. 10 No. 2, 307- 343.
CHINKIN, C., “Gender-related violence and international criminal law and justice” in CASSESE, A. (ed.), The Oxford Companion to International Criminal Justice, Oxford University Press, New York, 75-81.
CLAPHAM, A., “Issues of complexity, complicity and complementarity: from the Nuremberg trials to the dawn of the new International Criminal Court” in SANDS, P. (ed.), From Nuremberg to The Hague. The Future of International Criminal Justice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2003, 30-67.
CLARK, J.N., “The First Rape Conviction at the ICC: An Analysis of the Bemba Judgment”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, 2016, Vol. 14 No. 3, 667-687.
COAN, C.B., “Rethinking the Spoils of War: Prosecuting Rape as a War Crime in the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia”, North Carolina Journal of International Law, 2000, Vol 26. No. 1, 183-237.
CONDORELLI, L. and VILLALPANDO, S., “Can the Security Council extend the ICC’s jurisdiction?” in CASSESE, G.J. (ed.), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Vol. I, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2002, 571-582.
COWLEY, A. and ZARNI, M., “The Slow-Burning Genocide of Myanmar’s Rohingya”, Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal, 2014, Vol. 23 No. 3, 681-753.
CRYER, R., Prosecuting International Crimes: Selectivity and the International Criminal Law Regime, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005, 360 p.
CRYER, R., HERVEY, T. and SOKHI-BULLEY, B., Research methodologies in EU and international law, Hart Publishing, Oxford, 2011, 143 p.
CRYER, R., ROBINSON, D. and VASILIEV, S., An Introduction to International Criminal Law and Procedure, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2019, 576 p.
DE BROUWER, A.L.M., Supranational Criminal Prosecution of Sexual Violence: the ICC and the Practice of the ICTY and the ICTR, Intersentia, Antwerp, 2005, 570 p.
DÖRMANN, K., Elements of War Crimes under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2003, 524 p.
DRUCE, S.C., “Myanmar’s Unwanted Ethnic Minority: A History and Analysis of the Rohingya Crisis” in OISHI, M. (ed.), Managing Conflicts in a Globalizing ASEAN, Springer Singapore, Singapore, 2019, 17-46.
DÜRR, O., “Humanitarian Law of Armed Conflict: Problems of Applicability”, Journal of Peace Research, 1987, Vol. 24 No. 3, 263-273.
GALAND, A.S., UN Security Council Referrals to the International Criminal Court, BRILL, Boston, 2018, 266 p.
GLASER, S., Droit international pénal conventionnel, Vol. I, Bruylant, Brussel, 1970, 649 p.
GREEN, J., COPELON, R., COTTER, P. and STEPHENS, B., “Affecting the Rules for the Prosecution of Rape and Other Gender-Based Violence before the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia: A Feminist Proposal and Critique”, Hastings Women’s Law Journal, 1994, Vol. 5 No. 2, 171-242.
GREENAWALT, A., “Rethinking Genocidal Intent: The Case for a Knowledge-Based Interpretation”, Columbia Law Review, 1999, Vol. 99 No. 8, 2259-2294.
GREY, R., Prosecuting Sexual and Gender-Based Crimes at the International Criminal Court, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2019, 378 p.
GREY, R., O’DONOHUE, J., ROSENTHAL, I., DAVIS, L. and LLANTA, D., “Gender-based Persecution as a Crime Against Humanity: the Road Ahead”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, 2019, Vol. 17 No. 5, 957-979.
HAAR, R.J., WANG, K., VENTERS, H., SALONEN, S., PATEL, R., NELSON, T., MISHORI, R. and PARMAR, P.K., “Documentation of human rights abuses among Rohingya refugees from Myanmar”, Conflict & Health, 2019, Vol. 13 No. 42, 1-14.
HADDAD, H.N., “Mobilizing the Will to Prosecute: Crimes of Rape at the Yugoslav and Rwandan Tribunals”, Human Rights Review, 2011, Vol. 12 No. 1, 109-132.
HALE, K. and RANKIN, M., “Extending the ‘system’ of international criminal law? The ICC’s decision on jurisdiction over alleged deportations of Rohingya people”, Australian Journal of International Affairs, 2019, Vol. 73 No. 1, 22-28.
HOLMES, J.T., “Jurisdiction and Admissibility” in LEE, R.S. (ed.), The International Criminal Court: Elements of Crimes and Rules of Procedure and Evidence, Transnational Publishers, Ardsley-on-Hudson, 2001, 321-348.
HUTCHINSON, S., “Gendered insecurity in the Rohingya crisis”, Australian Journal of International Affairs, 2018, Vol. 72 No. 1, 1-9.
HWANG, P., “Defining Crimes Against Humanity in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court”, Fordham International Law Journal, 1998, Vol. 22 No. 2, 457-504.
IBRAHIM, A., The Rohingyas. Inside Myanmar’s Hidden Genocide, Hurst & Company, London, 2016, 235 p.
ISLAM, N., “Rohingya: A people Under Endless Tyranny”, Asian Affairs: An American Review, 2020, Vol. 48 No. 1, 1-27.
JARVIS, M. and MARTIN SALGADO, E., “Future Challenges to Prosecuting Sexual Violence Under International Law: Insights from ICTY Practice” in DE BROUWER, A., KU, C., ROMKENS, R. and VAN DEN HERIK, L. (eds.), Sexual Violence as an International Crime: Interdisciplinary Approaches, Intersentia, Cambridge, 2013, 101-122.
KAITESI, U., Genocidal gender and sexual violence: the legacy of the ICTR, Rwanda’s ordinary courts and gacaca courts, Intersentia, Cambridge, 2014, 271 p.
KAUL, H., “The International Criminal Court – Its relationship to domestic jurisdictions” in STAHN, C. and SLUITER, G. (eds.), The emerging practice of the International Criminal Court, Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2009, 31-38.
KESTEMONT, L. and SCHOUKENS, P., Rechtswetenschappelijk schrijven, Acco, Leuven, 2017, 143 p.
KING, K.L., “Gender Justice or Just Gender? The Role of Gender in Sexual Assault Decisions at the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia”, Social Science Quarterly, 2007, Vol. 88 No. 5, 1049-1071.
KIPGEN, N., “Conflict in Rakhine State in Myanmar: Rohingya Muslims’ Conundrum”, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 2013, Vol. 33 No. 2, 298-310.
KLEFFNER, J.K., Complementarity in the Rome Statute and National Criminal Jurisdictions, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008, 385 p.
KRESS, C., “The Crime of Genocide and Contextual Elements: A Comment on the ICC Pre- Trial Chamber’s Decision in the Al Bashir Case”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, 2009, Vol. 7 No. 2, 297-306.
KRESS, C., “The Darfur Report and Genocidal Intent”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, 2005, Vol. 3 No. 3, 562-578.
KRESS, C., “The 1999 crisis in East Timor and the threshold of the law on war crimes”, Criminal Law Forum, 2002, Vol. 13 No. 4, 409-470.
LA HAYE, E., War Crimes in Internal Armed Conflicts, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2008, 424 p.
LENTNER, G.M., “The Lasting Legacy of Double Standards: The International Criminal Court and the UN Security Council Referral Mechanism”, International Criminal Law Review, 2020, Vol. 20 No. 2, 251-284.
LOWENSTEIN, A. K., “Prosecution of the Rohingya Muslims: is Genocide occurring in Rakhine State? A Legal Analysis.”, International Human Rights Clinic at Yale Law School, 2015, 1-65.
LUPING, D., “Investigation and Prosecution of Sexual and Gender-Based Crimes before the International Criminal Court”, American University Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law, 2009, Vol. 17 No. 2, 431-496.
MACKINNON, C., “The Recognition of Rape as an act of Genocide – Prosecutor v. Akayesu”, New England Journal of International Law & Comparative Law, 2008, Vol. 14 No. 2, 101-110.
MACKOR, A.R., “Legal doctrine as a non-normative discipline”, Law and Method, 2012, Vol. 2 No. 1, 22-45.
MCDOUGALL, C., “The Sexual Violence Jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: the Silence Has Been Broken but Theres Still a Lot to Shout about” in DOLGOPOL, U. and GARDAM, J. (eds.), The Challenge of Conflict: International Law Responds, Nijhoff, Leiden, 2006, 331-346.
MERON, T., “Rape as a Crime under International Humanitarian Law”, American Journal of International Law, 1993, Vol. 87 No. 3, 424-428.
MESSNER, N., WOODS, A., PETTY, A., PARMAR, P.K., LEIGH, J., THOMAS, E., CURRY, D., VENTERS, H., GILBERT, A., NELSON, T. and LESTER, E., “Qualitative evidence of crimes against humanity: the August 2017 attacks on the Rohingya in northern Rakhine State, Myanmar”, Conflict & Health, 2019, Vol. 13 No. 41, 1-17.
MILLER, A.A., “From the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda to the International Criminal Court: Expanding the Definition of Genocide to Include Rape”, Penn State Law Review, 2003, Vol. 108 No. 1, 349-374.
NASUTION, A.R., “The Crime of Genocide on the Rohingya Ethnic in Myanmar from the Perspective of International Law and Human Rights”, PADJADJARAN Jurnal Ilmu Hukum (Journal of Law), 2018, Vol. 5 No. 1, 182-206.
OCHI, M. and MATSUYAMA, S., “Ethnic Conflicts in Myanmar: The Application of the Law of Non-International Armed Conflict” in LINTON, S., MCCORMACK, T. and SIVAKUMARAN, S. (eds.), Asia-Pacific Perspectives on International Humanitarian Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2020, 338-355.
O’KEEFE, R., International Criminal Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2015, 608 p.
OOSTERVELD, V., “Gender-Sensitive Justice and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: Lessons Learned for the International Criminal Court”, New England Journal of International and Comparative Law, 2005, Vol. 12 No. 1, 119-134.
OOSTERVELD, V., “The Elements of Genocide: Introduction” in LEE, R.S. (ed.), The International Criminal Court: Elements of Crimes and Rules of Procedure and Evidence, Transnational Publishers, Ardsley-on-Hudson, 2001, 41-44.
OOSTERVELD, V., “The Legacy of the ICTY and ICTR on Sexual and Gender-Based Violence” in STERIO, M. and SCHARF, M.P. (eds.), The Legacy of Ad Hoc Tribunals in International Criminal Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2019, 197-220.
PALMISANO, G., “The ICC and Third States” in LATTANZI, F. and SCHABAS, W.A. (eds.), Essays on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Vol. I, Il Sirente, Ripa Fagnano Alto, 1999, 391-425.
PHELPS, A., “Gender-Based War Crimes: Incidence and Effectiveness of International Criminal Prosecution”, William & Mary Journal of Women and the Law, 2006, Vol. 12 No. 2, 499-520.
PHELPS, T.G., “The Symbolic and Communicative Function of International Criminal Tribunals” in FINEMAN, M. and ZINSSTAG, E. (eds.), Feminist perspectives on transitional justice from international and criminal to alternative forms of justice, Intersentia, Oxford, 2013, 171-183.
PRATT, K.M. and FLETCHER, L.E., “Time for Justice: The Case for International Prosecutions of Rape and Gender-Based Violence in the Former Yugoslavia”, Berkeley Women’s Law Journal, 1994, Vol. 9 No. 1, 77-102.
RASTAN, R. and BADAR, M.E., “Article 11: Jurisdiction ratione temporis” in TRIFFTERER, O. and AMBOS, K. (eds.), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary, Beck, München, 2016, 657-671.
ROBINSON, D., “The Context of Crimes Against Humanity” in LEE, R.S. (ed.), The International Criminal Court: Elements of Crimes and Rules of Procedure and Evidence, Transnational Publishers, Ardsley-on-Hudson, 2001, 61-80.
ROGERS, S., “Sexual violence or rape as a constituent act of genocide: lessons from the ad hoc tribunals and a prescription for the International Criminal Court”, George Washington International Law Review, 2016, Vol. 48 No. 2, 265-314.
SADAT, L., “The International Criminal Court” in SCHABAS, W.A. (ed.), International Criminal Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2016, 137-154.
SAROOSHI, D., “The Peace and Justice Paradox: The International Criminal Court and the UN Security Council” in MCGOLDRICK, D., ROWE, P. and DONNELLY, E. (eds.), The Permanent International Criminal Court: Legal and Policy Issues, Hart Publishing, Oxford, 2004, 95-120.
SCHABAS, W.A., An introduction to the International Criminal Court, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2017, 598 p.
SCHABAS, W.A., Genocide in International Law: The Crime of Crimes, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009, 741 p.
SCHABAS, W.A., The International Criminal Court. A Commentary on the Rome Statute, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2016, 1589 p.
SCHABAS, W.A., “The Jelisic Case and the Mens Rea of the Crime of Genocide”, Leiden Journal of International Law, 2001, Vol. 14 No. 1, 125-140.
SCHABAS, W.A. and PECORELLA, G., “Article 12: Preconditions to the exercise of jurisdiction” in TRIFFTERER, O. and AMBOS, K. (eds.), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary, Beck, München, 2016, 672-689.
SCHEFFER, D., “The International Criminal Court” in SCHABAS, W.A. and BERNAZ, N. (eds.), Routledge Handbook of International Criminal Law, Routledge, London, 2011, 67-83.
SHARLACH, L., “Rape as Genocide: Bangladesh, the Former Yugoslavia, and Rwanda”, New Political Science, 2000, Vol. 22 No. 1, 89-102.
SHAW, M.N., International Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2017, 1033 p.
SHORT, J.M.H., “Sexual Violence as Genocide: The Developing Law of the International Criminal Tribunals and the International Criminal Court”, Michigan Journal of Race & Law, 2003, Vol. 8 No. 2, 503-538.
SMITH, K.O., “Prosecutor v. Lubanga: How the International Criminal Court Failed the Women and Girls of the Congo”, Howard Law Journal, 2011, Vol. 54 No. 2, 467-500.
SPIEKER, H., “The International Criminal Court and Non-International Armed Conflicts”, Leiden Journal of International Law, 2000, Vol. 13 No. 2, 395-425.
STAHN, C., EL ZEIDY, M. and OLASOLO, H., “The International Criminal Court’s Ad Hoc Jurisdiction Revisited”, American Journal of International Law, 2005, Vol. 99 No. 2, 421-431.
STERN, B. and FOUCHARD, I., “Sexual Violence as Genocide: The Important Role Played by the Bassiouni Commission in the Recent Development of International Criminal Law” in SADAT, L. and SCHARF, P. (eds.), Theory and Practice of International Criminal Law, Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2008, 285-307.
TAUFIQ, H.A., “China, India, and Myanmar: Playing Rohingya Roulette?” in HUSSAIN, I. (ed.), South Asia in Global Power Rivalry, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2019, 81-99.
TIJSSEN, H., De juridische dissertatie onder de loep, Boom Juridische uitgevers, The Hague, 2009, 252 p.
TRIFFTERER, O., “Genocide, Its Particular Intent to Destroy in Whole or in Part the Group as Such”, Leiden Journal of International Law, 2001, Vol. 14 No. 2, 399-408.
TROUILLE, H., “How Far Has the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda Really Come since Akayesu in the Prosecution and Investigation of Sexual Offences Committed against Women? An Analysis of Ndindiliyimana et al.”, International Criminal Law Review, 2013, Vol. 13 No. 4, 747-788.
TSILONIS, V., The Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court, Springer, Cham, 2019, 283 p.
ULLAH, A.A., “Rohingya Refugees to Bangladesh: Historical Exclusions and Contemporary Marginalization”, Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, 2011, Vol. 9 No. 2, 139-161.
VAGIAS, M., The Territorial Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2014, 380 p.
VALIANI, S., “Genocide Left Unchecked: Assessing the ICC’s Difficulties Detaining Omar Al-Bashir”, Berkeley Journal of International Law, 2017, Vol. 35 No. 1, 150-168.
VAN DIJCK, G., Kwaliteit van de juridische annotatie, Boom Juridische uitgevers, The Hague, 2011, 170 p.
VANHULLEBUSCH, M., “Regime change, the Security Council and China”, Chinese Journal of International Law, 2015, Vol. 14 No. 4, 665-708.
VAN KLINK, B.M.J. and POORT, L.M., “De normativiteit van de rechtswetenschap. Een pleidooi voor meer reflectie op de normatieve basis van het recht en de rechtswetenschap”, Rechtsgeleerd magazijn Themis, 2013, Vol. 6, 258-268.
VAN SCHAACK, B. and SLYE, R.C., International Criminal Law and Its Enforcement, Foundation Press, New York, 2007, 947 p.
VAN SLIEDREGT, E., “Joint Criminal Enterprise as a Pathway to Convicting Individuals for Genocide”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, 2007, Vol. 5 No. 1, 184-207.
WARE, A., Myanmar’s ‘Rohingya’ Conflict, Oxford University Press, New York, 2019, 276 p.
WERLE, G. and JESSBERGER, F., Principles of International Criminal Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2020, 630 p.
HUMAN RIGHTS REPORTS
“International Mission of Inquiry: Burma. Repression, Discrimination and Ethnic Cleansing in Arakan”, International Federation of Human Rights League report, 7 April 2000, 56 p.
“Myanmar: The Rohingya minority: Fundamental rights denied”, Amnesty International report, 18 May 2004, 37 p.
“All you can do is pray. Crimes Against Humanity and Ethnic Cleansing of Rohingya Muslims in Burma’s Arakan State”, Human Rights Watch report, 22 April 2013, 157 p.
“Policies of Persecution: Ending Abusive State Policies Against Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar”, Fortify Rights report, 25 February 2014, 79 p.
“Myanmar: A New Muslim Insurgency in Rakhine State”, International Crisis Group report, 15 December 2016, 30 p.
“Mission report of OHCHR rapid response mission to Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh”, UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights report, 11 October 2017, 11 p.
“They tried to kill us all: Atrocity Crimes against Rohingya Muslims in Rakhine State, Myanmar”, Fortify Rights report, 14 November 2017, 30 p.
“All of my body was pain. Sexual Violence against Rohingya Women and Girls in Burma”, Human Rights Watch report, 16 November 2017, 37 p.
“Briefing: Myanmar forces starve, abduct and rob Rohingya, as ethnic cleansing continues”, Amnesty International report, 7 February 2018, 7 p.
“The War Report: Armed Conflicts in 2017”, The Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights report, March 2018, 160 p.
“Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Myanmar”, UN Human Rights Council report, 9 March 2018, 30 p.
“They gave them long swords. Preparations for Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity Against Rohingya Muslims in Rakhine State, Myanmar”, Fortify Rights report, 19 July 2018, 159 p.
“Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on Myanmar”, UN Human Rights Council report, 12 September 2018, 21 p.
“Report of the detailed findings of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar”, UN Human Rights Council report, 17 September 2018, 444 p.
“Culture, Context and Mental Health of Rohingya Refugees: A review for staff in mental health and psychosocial support programmes for Rohingya refugees”, UN High Commissioner for Refugees report, 9 October 2018, 70 p.
“Sexual and gender-based violence in Myanmar and the gendered impact of its ethnic conflicts”, UN Human Rights Council report, 22 August 2019, 61 p.
“‘Tools of genocide’: National Verification Cards and the Denial of Citizenship of Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar”, Fortify Rights report, 3 September 2019, 100 p.
“Detailed findings on the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar”, UN Human Rights Council report, 16 September 2019, 189 p.
“Situation of human rights of Rohingya Muslims and other minorities in Myanmar”, UN Human Rights Council report, 3 September 2020, 15 p.
“An open prison without end. Myanmar’s mass detention of Rohingya in Rakhine State”, Human Rights Watch report, 8 October 2020, 173 p.
NEWS ARTICLES
“Who are the Rohingya?”, Radio Free Asia, 13 April 2010, https://www.rfa.org/english/multimedia/rohingyaPage- 04122010151733.html/RohingyaFactSheet-04132010102750.html (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Burma: Revoke ‘Two-Child Policy’ For Rohingya”, Human Rights Watch, 28 May 2013, https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/05/28/burma-revoke-two-child-policy-rohingya (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Two-child policy violates human rights of Myanmar’s Rohingya Muslims – UN Expert”, UN News, 31 May 2013, https://news.un.org/en/story/2013/05/441112-two-child-policy-violates-human-rights-myanmars-rohingya-muslims-un-expert (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Burma’s Bluff on the Two-Child Policy for Rohingyas”, Human Rights Watch, 21 June 2013, https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/06/21/burmas-bluff-two-child-policy-rohingyas (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Russia, China block Security Council referral of Syria to International Criminal Court”, UN News, 22 May 2014, https://news.un.org/en/story/2014/05/468962-russia-china-block-security-council-referral-syria-international-criminal-court (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“UN Security Council: Vetoes Betray Syrian Victims”, Human Rights Watch, 22 May 2014, https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/05/22/un-security-council-vetoes-betray-syrian-victims (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Marriage ban on Rohingyas”, The Daily Star, 15 July 2014, https://www.thedailystar.net/marriage-ban-on-rohingyas-33343 (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Myanmar population control law threatens minorities: rights group”, Reuters, 22 April 2015, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-law-minorities-idUSKBN0ND1XI20150422 (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Burma’s birth control law exposes Buddhist fear of Muslim minority”, The Guardian, 25 May 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/may/25/burmas-birth-control-law-exposes-buddhist-fear-of-muslim-minority (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Myanmar’s Parliament approves controversial Interfaith Marriage Law”, Radio Free Asia, 7 July 2015, https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/parliament-approves-controversial-interfaith-marriage-law-07072015152051.html (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Burma: Reject Discriminatory Marriage Bill”, Human Rights Watch, 9 July 2015, https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/07/09/burma-reject-discriminatory-marriage-bill# (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“China, Russia block U.N. council concern about Myanmar violence”, Reuters, 17 March 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-un-idUSKBN16O2J6 (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Rohingya Muslim Crisis: Burmese colonel dismisses ethnic cleansing claims, asking ‘who would want to rape them?’”, Independent, 11 September 2017, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/rohingya-muslim-myanmar-latest-aung-san- suu-kyi-ethnic-cleansing-news-colonel-rape-a7941556.html (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“On Rohingya Issue, Both China and India Back Myanmar Government”, The Diplomat, 13 September 2017, https://thediplomat.com/2017/09/on-rohingya-issue-both-china-and-india-back-myanmar-government/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“ARSA group denies links with al-Qaeda, ISIL and others”, Al Jazeera, 14 September 2017, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/9/14/arsa-group-denies-links-with-al-qaeda-isil-and- others (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Many Rohingya women are raped in Myanmar, Bangladesh home minister says”, BD News, 14 September 2017, https://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2017/09/14/many-rohingya-women- are-raped-in-myanmar-bangladesh-home-minister-says (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Myanmar Follows Global Pattern in How Ethnic Cleansing Begins”, The New York Times, 18 September 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/18/world/asia/myanmar-rohingya-ethnic-cleansing.html (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Burma: Military commits Crimes Against Humanity”, Human Rights Watch, 25 September 2017, https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/09/25/burma-military-commits-crimes-against-humanity (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Myanmar: Crimes against humanity terrorize and drive Rohingya out”, Amnesty International, 18 October 2017, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2017/10/myanmar-new-evidence-of-systematic-campaign-to-terrorize-and-drive-rohingya-out/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Sexual violence devastating, humanitarian needs mounting in Rohingya crisis”, UNFPA News, 20 October 2017, https://www.unfpa.org/es/news/sexual-violence-devastating-humanitarian-needs-mounting-rohingya-crisis (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Across Myanmar, Denial of Ethnic Cleansing and Loathing of Rohingya”, The New York Times, 24 October 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/24/world/asia/myanmar-rohingya-ethnic-cleansing.html (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“U.N. official says will raise sexual violence against Rohingya with ICC”, Reuters, 12 November 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bangladesh-myanmar/u-n-official-says- will-raise-sexual-violence-against-rohingya-with-icc-idUSKBN1DC0N7 (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Rohingya Were Raped Systematically by Myanmar’s Military, Report Says”, The New York Times, 16 November 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/16/world/asia/myanmar-rohingya-rapes.html (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Myanmar: Fresh evidence of ongoing ethnic cleansing as military starves, abducts and robs Rohingya”, Amnesty International, 7 February 2018, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/02/myanmar-fresh-evidence-of-ongoing-ethnic- cleansing-as-military-starves-abducts-robs-rohingya/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Failing Rohingya Rape Victims in Bangladesh”, Human Rights Watch, 23 February 2018, https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/02/23/failing-rohingya-rape-victims-bangladesh (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“UN Security Council: Refer Myanmar to ICC”, Human Rights Watch, 8 May 2018, https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/05/08/un-security-council-refer-myanmar-icc (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“For Rohingya refugees, imminent surge in births is traumatic legacy of sexual violence - special report”, UN News, 11 May 2018, https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/05/1009372 (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“UN mobilizes in Rohingya camps to support babies born of rape; young mothers face stigma”, UN News, 19 June 2018, https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/06/1012372 (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Special report - The shock troops who expelled the Rohingya from Myanmar”, Reuters, 26 June 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-myanmar-rohingya-battalions-specialre-idUKKBN1JM1YA (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Exclusive: Myanmar rejects citizenship reform at private Rohingya talks”, Reuters, 27 June 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-meeting-exclusive-idUSKBN1JN0D7 (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“UN Security Council Should Seek Justice for Myanmar Atrocities”, Human Rights Watch, 27 August 2018, https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/08/27/un-security-council-should-seek-justice-myanmar-atrocities (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Myanmar rejects ‘false allegations’ in U.N. genocide report”, Reuters, 29 August 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-un-idUSKCN1LE0AC (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“U.N. Security Council: Refer Myanmar to the International Criminal Court”, Fortify Rights, 7 September 2018, https://www.fortifyrights.org/mya-2018-09-07/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“U.N. Security Council mulls Myanmar action; Russia, China boycott talks”, Reuters, 17 December 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-un-idUSKBN1OG2CJ (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Myanmar’s Hollow Denial of Rape of Rohingya: Overwhelming Evidence of Military Role in Hundreds of Sexual Assaults”, Human Rights Watch, 7 February 2019, https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/02/07/myanmars-hollow-denial-rape-rohingya (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“In exile in Bangladesh, a bittersweet revival of Rohingya culture”, Reuters, 8 May 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-culture-idUSKCN1SE02F (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Myanmar: Crimes Against Rohingya Go Unpunished”, Human Rights Watch, 22 August 2019, https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/08/22/myanmar-crimes-against-rohingya-go-unpunished (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“‘Genocide card’: Myanmar Rohingya verification scheme condemned”, Al Jazeera, 3 September 2019, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/9/3/genocide-card-myanmar-rohingya-verification-scheme-condemned (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Myanmar: ICC decision to investigate Rohingya atrocities an important step towards justice”, Amnesty International, 14 November 2019, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2019/11/myanmar-icc-referral/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Myanmar rejects ICC probe into alleged crimes against Rohingya”, Al Jazeera, 15 November 2019, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/11/15/myanmar-rejects-icc-probe-into-alleged-crimes-against-rohingya (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Aung San Suu Kyi Denies Burmese Genocide of Rohingya at The Hague”, Human Rights Watch, 17 December 2019, https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/12/17/aung-san-suu-kyi-denies-burmese-genocide-rohingya-hague (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Myanmar: New Evidence of Denial of Rohingya Citizenship”, Fortify Rights, 16 January 2020, https://www.fortifyrights.org/mya-inv-2020-01-16/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Sudan signals it may send former dictator Omar al-Bashir to ICC”, The Guardian, 11 February 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/11/sudan-says-it-will-send-former-dictator-omar-al-bashir-to-icc (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Rohingya survivors tell of misery and death at sea; hundreds still adrift”, Reuters, 3 May 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN22F0QA (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“What Myanmar Is and Is Not Doing to Protect Rohingyas from Genocide”, Human Rights Watch, 23 July 2020, https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/07/23/what-myanmar-and-not-doing-protect-rohingyas-genocide (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Rohingya Symposium: A Strategy for Strong Security Council Action on Myanmar”, Human Rights Watch, 28 August 2020, https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/08/28/rohingya-symposium-strategy-strong-security-council-action-myanmar (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Rohingya refugees allege sexual assault on Bangladeshi island”, The Guardian, 22 September 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/sep/22/rohingya-refugees-allege-sexual-assault-on-bangladeshi-island (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Myanmar: Mass Detention of Rohingya in Squalid Camps”, Human Rights Watch, 8 October 2020, https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/10/08/myanmar-mass-detention-rohingya-squalid-camps (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Rohingya Activists Are Hoping That the Coup in Myanmar Will Be a Turning Point for Their Struggle”, Time, 8 February 2021, https://time.com/5936604/myanmar-coup-rohingya/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“‘We cannot hope for anything good’: Myanmar coup sparks despair for Rohingya”, The Guardian, 14 February 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/feb/14/we-cannot-hope-for-anything-good-myanmar-coup-sparks-despair- for-rohingya (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Is the Myanmar coup a turning point for the Rohingya?”, Al Jazeera, 17 February 2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/program/inside-story/2021/2/17/is-the-myanmar-coup-a-turning- point-for-the-rohingyas (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Timeline of events in Myanmar since February 1 coup”, Al Jazeera, 23 February 2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/23/timeline-of-events-in-myanmar-since-february-1- coup (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“LRA’s Ongwen: A critical first ICC conviction”, Human Rights Watch, 13 March 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/03/13/lras-ongwen-critical-first-icc-conviction (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Bangladesh: Refugee Camp Fencing Cost Lives in Blaze”, Human Rights Watch, 25 March 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/03/25/bangladesh-refugee-camp-fencing-cost-lives-blaze (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“‘We have nothing’: Refugee camp fire devastates Rohingya, again”, Al Jazeera, 25 March 2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/27/rebuilding-from-the-ashes-rohingya-a-year-after-deadly-blaze (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Fire Tears Through Rohingya Camp, Leaving Thousands Homeless Once More”, The New York Times, 27 March 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/23/world/asia/bangladesh-rohingya-fire-refugees.html (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Myanmar’s Coup and Violence, Explained”, The New York Times, 24 April 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/article/myanmar-news-protests-coup.html (consulted on 1 May 2021).
OTHER
“Rohingya Culture”, AROUK, https://thearouk.org/rohingya-culture/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Rohingya’s: their culture”, Canadian Rohingya Development Initiative, https://www.rohingya.ca/rohingyas-have-distinct-culture/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“The States Parties to the Rome Statute”, Assembly of States Parties, https://asp.icc- cpi.int/en_menus/asp/states parties/Pages/the states parties to the rome statute.aspx (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Study of the Question of the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Progress Report by Mr Nicodème Ruhashyankiko, Special Rapporteur”, UN Economic and Social Council, 25 June 1973, E/CN.4/Sub.2/L.583.
“Security Council, 60th year: 5158th meeting, Thursday, 31 March 2005, New York”, UN Security Council, 31 March 2005, S/PV.5158.
“Bangladesh ratifies the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court”, ICC Press Release, 24 March 2010, https://www.icc- cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=bangladesh+ratifies+the+rome+statute+of+the+international+c riminal+court&ln=en (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“The Security Council’s Appalling Record of Referring Situations to the ICC”, Justice in Conflict, 23 May 2014, https://justiceinconflict.org/2014/05/23/the-security-councils-appalling-record-of-referring-situations-to-the-icc/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“ICC Prosecutor, Fatou Bensouda, launches Policy on Sexual & Gender-Based Crimes: Ensuring victims have a voice in court today can prevent these crimes tomorrow #EndSexualViolence”, ICC Press Release, 9 December 2014, https://www.icc- cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1073 (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“The Politicisation of the International Criminal Court by United Nations Security Council Referrals”, Accord, February 2017, https://www.accord.org.za/conflict-trends/politicisation- international-criminal-court-united-nations-security-council-referrals/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein highlights human rights concerns around the world in an address to the 36th session of the Human Rights Council in Geneva”, UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 11 September 2017, https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=22044&LangID= E (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Gallant efforts to defend the HQ against terrorist attacks and brilliant efforts to restore regional peace, security are honoured”, Senior General Min Aung Hlaing, 21 September 2017, https://www.seniorgeneralminaunghlaing.com.mm/en/1346/gallant-efforts-to-defend-the-hq- against-terrorist-attacks-and-brilliant-efforts-to-restore-regional-peace-security-are-honoured/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Understanding China’s Response to the Rakhine Crisis”, United States Institute of Peace, 2018, https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/2018-02/sr419-understanding-chinas-response-to-the-rakhine-crisis.pdf (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Analysis of Jean-Pierre Bemba’s acquittal by the International Criminal Court”, Accord, March 2018, https://www.accord.org.za/conflict-trends/analysis-of-jean-pierre-bembas-acquittal-by-the-international-criminal-court/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“More than 60 Rohingya babies born in Bangladesh refugee camps every day”, UNICEF Press Release, 17 May 2018, https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/more-60-rohingya-babies-born-bangladesh-refugee-camps-every-day-unicef (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“‘The Role of Social Media is Significant’: Facebook and the Fact Finding Mission on Myanmar”, Opinio Juris, 7 September 2018, http://opiniojuris.org/2018/09/07/the-role-of- social-media-is-significant-facebook-and-the-fact-finding-mission-on-myanmar/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Statement of ICC Prosecutor, Fatou Bensouda, on opening a Preliminary Examination concerning the alleged deportation of the Rohingya people from Myanmar to Bangladesh”, International Criminal Court, 18 September 2018, https://www.icc- cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=180918-otp-stat-Rohingya (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“The Republic of the Gambia institutes proceedings against the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and asks the Court to indicate provisional measures”, ICJ Press Release, 11 November 2019, https://www.icj-cij.org/public/files/case-related/178/178-20191111-PRE-01-00-EN.pdf (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“ICC judges authorise opening of an investigation into the situation in Bangladesh/Myanmar”, ICC Press Release, 14 November 2019, https://www.icc- cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1495 (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (The Gambia v. Myanmar) - Request for the indication of provisional measures - The Court to hold public hearings from Tuesday 10 to Thursday 12 December 2019”, ICJ Press Release, 18 November 2019, https://www.icj-cij.org/public/files/case-related/178/178-20191118-PRE-01-EN.pdf (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Statement of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, Fatou Bensouda, following judicial authorisation to commence an investigation into the Situation in Bangladesh/Myanmar”, International Criminal Court, 22 November 2019, https://www.icc- cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=20191122-otp-statement-bangladesh-myanmar (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Statement of the Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court as delivered at the press conference in Dhaka, Bangladesh”, International Criminal Court, 4 February 2020, https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=20200204-otp-statement (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“The ‘kalar’ controversy shows many in Myanmar aren’t listening”, Frontier Myanmar, 19 June 2020, https://www.frontiermyanmar.net/en/the-kalar-controversy-shows-many-in-myanmar-arent-listening/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Rohingya Symposium: The Rohingya Cases before International Courts and the Crime of Genocide”, Opinio Juris, 25 August 2020, https://opiniojuris.org/2020/08/25/rohingya- symposium-the-rohingya-cases-before-international-courts-and-the-crime-of-genocide/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Accounts from health care professionals indicate widespread and long-lasting impacts of sexual violence against Rohingya”, Physicians for Human Rights, 22 October 2020, https://phr.org/news/accounts-from-health-care-professionals-indicate-widespread-and-long- lasting-impacts-of-sexual-violence-against-rohingya/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).
“Operational Update External”, UNHCR Bangladesh, March 2021, https://data2.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/86333 (consulted on 1 May 2021).
