Rechtvaardigheid voor de Rohingya: biedt het Internationaal Strafhof soelaas?

Clara
Van Thillo

We are going to kill you this way, by raping you”, zei een Myanmarese soldaat tegen een Rohingya meisje, vlak voor ze werd verkracht en gedood. Sinds augustus 2017 zijn duizenden Rohingya vrouwen het slachtoffer geworden van seksueel geweld door de Tatmadaw, het Myanmarese leger. Een recente studie toont aan dat het vervolgd zou kunnen worden voor het Internationaal Strafhof in Den Haag als misdaden tegen de mensheid, oorlogsmisdaden en zelfs genocide.

Rohingya op de vlucht voor geweld

De Rohingya is een staatloze, islamitische minderheid die leeft in het westen van Myanmar. Reeds decennialang worden ze onderdrukt en zijn ze slachtoffer van mensenrechtenschendingen. De Verenigde Naties omschrijven de Rohingya als ‘een van de meest vervolgde minderheden ter wereld’. In augustus 2017 escaleerde het geweld in de zogenaamde clearance operations. Dat waren militaire operaties van de Tatmadaw, gesteund door de voormalige Myanmarese overheid, waarbij duizenden Rohingya werden gedood. De operaties waren een reactie op enkele terroristische aanvallen van ARSA, een groepering die de belangen van de Rohingya verdedigt. Om te ontkomen aan het geweld, zijn meer dan 800.000 Rohingya gevlucht naar buurlanden, waaronder Bangladesh.

Rapporten van mensenrechtenorganisaties tonen aan dat verkrachting en seksueel geweld een belangrijk wapen waren in dit conflict. Volgens de autoriteiten in Bangladesh is 90 procent van de Rohingya vrouwen in de vluchtelingenkampen slachtoffer van verkrachting. Het merendeel van de verkrachtingen waren groepsverkrachtingen. Er zijn incidenten gerapporteerd waarbij tot wel 40 vrouwen tegelijk werden verkracht. Verkrachtingen vonden vaak plaats in openbare ruimtes, waarbij familieleden en dorpsgenoten gedwongen werden om toe te kijken. De vrouwen werden daarbij vaak verbaal vernederd en gemutileerd. De slachtoffers waren voornamelijk vrouwen van vruchtbare leeftijd, tussen 13 en 25 jaar. Naast verkrachting is de Tatmadaw ook verantwoordelijk voor andere vormen van seksueel geweld, zoals genitale verminking en seksuele slavernij. Zo werden er Rohingya vrouwen ontvoerd en opgesloten in militaire kampen, waar ze werden verkracht op regelmatige basis.

De studie gaat na of die feiten vervolgd zouden kunnen worden voor het Internationaal Strafhof in Den Haag. Dat is een permanente, internationale rechtbank waar individuen worden vervolgd en berecht voor internationale misdrijven, waaronder genocide, misdaden tegen de mensheid en oorlogsmisdaden. De juridische grondslag van het Internationaal Strafhof is het Statuut van Rome, dat de verschillende misdrijven omschrijft. Op 14 november 2019 heeft het Hof een onderzoek geopend naar de misdrijven die tegen de Rohingya zijn gepleegd. Het onderzoek is nog steeds lopende. Het blijft een open vraag of het seksueel geweld ook zal worden vervolgd, maar de Procureur heeft aangekondigd dat eender welk misdrijf gepleegd op het grondgebied van een lidstaat kan worden onderzocht. De Myanmarese overheid ontkende tot nu toe alle aantijgingen.

Myanmar is geen partij bij het Statuut van Rome

Het Statuut van Rome vormde het uitgangspunt voor de studie naar de bevoegdheid van het Internationaal Strafhof over de situatie van de Rohingya. Dat werd aangevuld met andere officiële documenten van het Hof, rechtspraak van het Hof en rechtspraak van andere internationale straftribunalen. 

Het Internationaal Strafhof heeft enkel territoriale bevoegdheid over misdrijven die zijn gepleegd op het grondgebied van een van haar lidstaten, namelijk staten die het Statuut van Rome hebben ondertekend. Myanmar is echter geen partij bij het Statuut van Rome. Toch heeft het Hof zich bevoegd verklaard over de situatie van de Rohingya op grond van het lidmaatschap van Bangladesh. Volgens het Hof is er sprake van een grensoverschrijdende situatie, omdat vele Rohingya onder andere werden gedeporteerd naar Bangladesh. Seksueel geweld is echter doorgaans niet grensoverschrijdend. Nochtans heeft de studie aangetoond dat het seksueel geweld kan worden beschouwd als deel van het grotere misdrijf ‘vervolging’. De Tatmadaw gebruikte namelijk seksueel geweld als een middel om de Rohingya te vervolgen en hen het land uit te drijven. Verder kan seksueel geweld ook als contextueel element in aanmerking worden genomen, zelfs als het niet onder de bevoegdheid van het Hof valt.

Welke internationale misdrijven werden er gepleegd?

Het Hof is enkel bevoegd als er een internationaal misdrijf is gepleegd, zoals omschreven in het Statuut van Rome. Volgens de studie is er sprake van genocide. Seksueel geweld wordt niet zo duidelijk geassocieerd met genocide als moord, maar kan wel degelijk de vernietiging van een groep tot gevolg hebben. Zo hadden de verkrachtingen vaak de dood tot gevolg en overlevenden liepen lichamelijke letsels of mentale trauma’s op waardoor ze niet langer in staat zijn om zich voort te planten. Geweld is pas genocidaal als het is gepleegd met de bedoeling een nationale, etnische, raciale of godsdienstige groep als zodanig te vernietigen. De Rohingya vormen een etnische en religieuze groep. Ze zijn moslim in een Boeddhistische samenleving, hebben een donkerdere huid dan andere Myanmarezen, belijden een andere cultuur en spreken een andere taal. Verschillende elementen, zoals de bovenstaande uitspraak van een soldaat, lijken te suggereren dat de Myanmarese overheid en de Tatmadaw de bedoeling hadden om de Rohingya te vernietigen.

Daarnaast kan het seksueel geweld worden vervolgd als misdaden tegen de mensheid. Het Statuut van Rome vereist daarvoor dat het geweld onderdeel is van een wijdverbreide of stelselmatige aanval gericht tegen een burgerbevolking. De aanval tegen de Rohingya was duidelijk zowel wijdverbreid als stelselmatig. In totaal werden er meer dan 10.000 Rohingya gedood, meer dan 800.000 Rohingya sloegen op de vlucht en meer dan 200 nederzettingen werden met de grond gelijkgemaakt. De Tatmadaw volgde een vergelijkbare aanpak in de verschillende Rohingya dorpen, wat wijst op een duidelijk patroon. Het seksueel geweld maakte deel uit van die aanval. Ook is er sprake van oorlogsmisdaden, gelet op het intern gewapend conflict dat zich afspeelde tussen het Myanmarese leger en ARSA. Tijdens gewapende conflicten is het internationaal humanitair recht van toepassing en zijn bepaalde handelingen verboden, waaronder seksueel geweld.

Tijdens oorlog is seksueel geweld een wapen en niet slechts een gevolg. Het moet dus even serieus worden genomen als andere misdrijven. Volgens het recht kan het seksueel geweld tegen de Rohingya vervolgd worden. Of dat volgens de Procureur en het Internationaal Strafhof kan, valt af te wachten. Zal rechtvaardigheid zegevieren?

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HUMAN RIGHTS REPORTS

“International Mission of Inquiry: Burma. Repression, Discrimination and Ethnic Cleansing in Arakan”, International Federation of Human Rights League report, 7 April 2000, 56 p.

“Myanmar: The Rohingya minority: Fundamental rights denied”, Amnesty International report, 18 May 2004, 37 p.

“All you can do is pray. Crimes Against Humanity and Ethnic Cleansing of Rohingya Muslims in Burma’s Arakan State”, Human Rights Watch report, 22 April 2013, 157 p.

“Policies of Persecution: Ending Abusive State Policies Against Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar”, Fortify Rights report, 25 February 2014, 79 p.

“Myanmar: A New Muslim Insurgency in Rakhine State”, International Crisis Group report, 15 December 2016, 30 p.

“Mission report of OHCHR rapid response mission to Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh”, UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights report, 11 October 2017, 11 p.

“They tried to kill us all: Atrocity Crimes against Rohingya Muslims in Rakhine State, Myanmar”, Fortify Rights report, 14 November 2017, 30 p.

“All of my body was pain. Sexual Violence against Rohingya Women and Girls in Burma”, Human Rights Watch report, 16 November 2017, 37 p.

“Briefing: Myanmar forces starve, abduct and rob Rohingya, as ethnic cleansing continues”, Amnesty International report, 7 February 2018, 7 p.

“The War Report: Armed  Conflicts in 2017”, The Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights report, March 2018, 160 p.

“Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Myanmar”, UN Human Rights Council report, 9 March 2018, 30 p.

“They gave them long swords. Preparations for Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity Against Rohingya Muslims in Rakhine State, Myanmar”, Fortify Rights report, 19 July 2018, 159 p.

“Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on Myanmar”, UN Human Rights Council report, 12 September 2018, 21 p.

“Report of the detailed findings of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar”, UN Human Rights Council report, 17 September 2018, 444 p.

“Culture, Context and Mental Health of Rohingya Refugees: A review for staff in mental health and psychosocial support programmes for Rohingya refugees”, UN High Commissioner for Refugees report, 9 October 2018, 70 p.

“Sexual and gender-based violence in Myanmar and the gendered impact of its ethnic conflicts”, UN Human Rights Council report, 22 August 2019, 61 p.

“‘Tools of genocide’: National Verification Cards and the Denial of Citizenship of Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar”, Fortify Rights report, 3 September 2019, 100 p.

“Detailed findings on the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar”, UN Human Rights Council report, 16 September 2019, 189 p.

“Situation of human rights of Rohingya Muslims and other minorities in Myanmar”, UN Human Rights Council report, 3 September 2020, 15 p.

“An open prison without end. Myanmar’s mass detention of Rohingya in Rakhine State”, Human Rights Watch report, 8 October 2020, 173 p.

NEWS ARTICLES

“Who       are       the       Rohingya?”,              Radio   Free     Asia,                   13             April      2010, https://www.rfa.org/english/multimedia/rohingyaPage- 04122010151733.html/RohingyaFactSheet-04132010102750.html (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Burma: Revoke ‘Two-Child Policy’ For Rohingya”, Human Rights Watch, 28 May 2013, https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/05/28/burma-revoke-two-child-policy-rohingya (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Two-child policy violates human rights of Myanmar’s Rohingya Muslims – UN Expert”, UN News, 31 May 2013, https://news.un.org/en/story/2013/05/441112-two-child-policy-violates-human-rights-myanmars-rohingya-muslims-un-expert (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Burma’s Bluff on the Two-Child Policy for Rohingyas”, Human Rights Watch, 21 June 2013, https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/06/21/burmas-bluff-two-child-policy-rohingyas (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Russia, China block Security Council referral of Syria to International Criminal Court”, UN News, 22 May 2014, https://news.un.org/en/story/2014/05/468962-russia-china-block-security-council-referral-syria-international-criminal-court (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“UN Security Council: Vetoes Betray Syrian Victims”, Human Rights Watch, 22 May 2014, https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/05/22/un-security-council-vetoes-betray-syrian-victims (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Marriage       ban       on       Rohingyas”,       The       Daily       Star,                       15         July    2014, https://www.thedailystar.net/marriage-ban-on-rohingyas-33343 (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Myanmar population control law threatens minorities: rights group”, Reuters, 22 April 2015, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-law-minorities-idUSKBN0ND1XI20150422 (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Burma’s birth control law exposes Buddhist fear of Muslim minority”, The Guardian, 25 May 2015,              https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/may/25/burmas-birth-control-law-exposes-buddhist-fear-of-muslim-minority (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Myanmar’s Parliament approves controversial Interfaith Marriage Law”, Radio Free Asia, 7 July        2015,           https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/parliament-approves-controversial-interfaith-marriage-law-07072015152051.html (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Burma: Reject Discriminatory Marriage Bill”, Human Rights Watch, 9 July 2015, https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/07/09/burma-reject-discriminatory-marriage-bill# (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“China, Russia block U.N. council concern about Myanmar violence”, Reuters, 17 March 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-un-idUSKBN16O2J6 (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Rohingya Muslim Crisis: Burmese colonel dismisses ethnic cleansing claims, asking ‘who would              want             to                 rape        them?’”,           Independent, 11                 September        2017, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/rohingya-muslim-myanmar-latest-aung-san- suu-kyi-ethnic-cleansing-news-colonel-rape-a7941556.html (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“On Rohingya Issue, Both China and India Back Myanmar Government”, The Diplomat, 13 September   2017,                                 https://thediplomat.com/2017/09/on-rohingya-issue-both-china-and-india-back-myanmar-government/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“ARSA group denies links with al-Qaeda, ISIL and others”, Al Jazeera, 14 September 2017, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/9/14/arsa-group-denies-links-with-al-qaeda-isil-and- others (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Many Rohingya women are raped in Myanmar, Bangladesh home minister says”, BD News, 14 September 2017, https://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2017/09/14/many-rohingya-women- are-raped-in-myanmar-bangladesh-home-minister-says (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Myanmar Follows Global Pattern in How Ethnic Cleansing Begins”, The New York Times, 18 September 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/18/world/asia/myanmar-rohingya-ethnic-cleansing.html (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Burma: Military commits Crimes Against Humanity”, Human Rights Watch, 25 September 2017,                       https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/09/25/burma-military-commits-crimes-against-humanity (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Myanmar: Crimes against humanity terrorize and drive Rohingya out”, Amnesty International, 18 October 2017, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2017/10/myanmar-new-evidence-of-systematic-campaign-to-terrorize-and-drive-rohingya-out/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Sexual violence devastating, humanitarian needs mounting in Rohingya crisis”, UNFPA News, 20 October 2017, https://www.unfpa.org/es/news/sexual-violence-devastating-humanitarian-needs-mounting-rohingya-crisis (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Across Myanmar, Denial of Ethnic Cleansing and Loathing of Rohingya”, The New York Times, 24 October 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/24/world/asia/myanmar-rohingya-ethnic-cleansing.html (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“U.N. official says will raise sexual violence against Rohingya with ICC”, Reuters, 12 November 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bangladesh-myanmar/u-n-official-says- will-raise-sexual-violence-against-rohingya-with-icc-idUSKBN1DC0N7 (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Rohingya Were Raped Systematically by Myanmar’s Military, Report Says”, The New York Times, 16 November 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/16/world/asia/myanmar-rohingya-rapes.html (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Myanmar: Fresh evidence of ongoing ethnic cleansing as military starves, abducts and robs Rohingya”, Amnesty                                 International,      7                                   February 2018, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/02/myanmar-fresh-evidence-of-ongoing-ethnic- cleansing-as-military-starves-abducts-robs-rohingya/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Failing Rohingya Rape Victims in Bangladesh”, Human Rights Watch, 23 February 2018, https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/02/23/failing-rohingya-rape-victims-bangladesh (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“UN Security Council: Refer Myanmar to ICC”, Human Rights Watch, 8 May 2018, https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/05/08/un-security-council-refer-myanmar-icc (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“For Rohingya refugees, imminent surge in births is traumatic legacy of sexual violence - special report”, UN News, 11 May 2018, https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/05/1009372 (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“UN mobilizes in Rohingya camps to support babies born of rape; young mothers face stigma”, UN News, 19 June 2018, https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/06/1012372 (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Special report - The shock troops who expelled the Rohingya from Myanmar”, Reuters, 26 June 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-myanmar-rohingya-battalions-specialre-idUKKBN1JM1YA (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Exclusive: Myanmar rejects citizenship reform at private Rohingya talks”, Reuters, 27 June 2018,                                https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-meeting-exclusive-idUSKBN1JN0D7 (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“UN Security Council Should Seek Justice for Myanmar Atrocities”, Human Rights Watch, 27 August 2018, https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/08/27/un-security-council-should-seek-justice-myanmar-atrocities (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Myanmar rejects ‘false allegations’ in U.N. genocide report”, Reuters, 29 August 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-un-idUSKCN1LE0AC (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“U.N. Security Council: Refer Myanmar to the International Criminal Court”, Fortify Rights, 7 September 2018, https://www.fortifyrights.org/mya-2018-09-07/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“U.N. Security Council mulls Myanmar action; Russia, China boycott talks”, Reuters, 17 December          2018,                                https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-un-idUSKBN1OG2CJ (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Myanmar’s Hollow Denial of Rape of Rohingya: Overwhelming Evidence of Military Role in Hundreds of Sexual Assaults”, Human Rights Watch, 7 February 2019, https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/02/07/myanmars-hollow-denial-rape-rohingya (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“In exile in Bangladesh, a bittersweet revival of Rohingya culture”, Reuters, 8 May 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-culture-idUSKCN1SE02F (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Myanmar: Crimes Against Rohingya Go Unpunished”, Human Rights Watch, 22 August 2019, https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/08/22/myanmar-crimes-against-rohingya-go-unpunished (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“‘Genocide card’: Myanmar Rohingya verification scheme condemned”, Al Jazeera, 3 September        2019,                         https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/9/3/genocide-card-myanmar-rohingya-verification-scheme-condemned (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Myanmar: ICC decision to investigate Rohingya atrocities an important step towards justice”, Amnesty             International,   14                                   November                           2019, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2019/11/myanmar-icc-referral/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Myanmar rejects ICC probe into alleged crimes against Rohingya”, Al Jazeera, 15 November 2019, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/11/15/myanmar-rejects-icc-probe-into-alleged-crimes-against-rohingya (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Aung San Suu Kyi Denies Burmese Genocide of Rohingya at The Hague”, Human Rights Watch, 17 December 2019, https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/12/17/aung-san-suu-kyi-denies-burmese-genocide-rohingya-hague (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Myanmar: New Evidence of Denial of Rohingya Citizenship”, Fortify Rights, 16 January 2020, https://www.fortifyrights.org/mya-inv-2020-01-16/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Sudan signals it may send former dictator Omar al-Bashir to ICC”, The Guardian, 11 February 2020,                     https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/11/sudan-says-it-will-send-former-dictator-omar-al-bashir-to-icc (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Rohingya survivors tell of misery and death at sea; hundreds still adrift”, Reuters, 3 May 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN22F0QA (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“What Myanmar Is and Is Not Doing to Protect Rohingyas from Genocide”, Human Rights Watch, 23 July 2020, https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/07/23/what-myanmar-and-not-doing-protect-rohingyas-genocide (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Rohingya Symposium: A Strategy for Strong Security Council Action on Myanmar”, Human Rights Watch, 28 August 2020, https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/08/28/rohingya-symposium-strategy-strong-security-council-action-myanmar (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Rohingya refugees allege sexual assault on Bangladeshi island”, The Guardian, 22 September 2020,                   https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/sep/22/rohingya-refugees-allege-sexual-assault-on-bangladeshi-island (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Myanmar: Mass Detention of Rohingya in Squalid Camps”, Human Rights Watch, 8 October 2020,                  https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/10/08/myanmar-mass-detention-rohingya-squalid-camps (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Rohingya Activists Are Hoping That the Coup in Myanmar Will Be a Turning Point for Their Struggle”,             Time,     8          February   2021,           https://time.com/5936604/myanmar-coup-rohingya/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“‘We cannot hope for anything good’: Myanmar coup sparks despair for Rohingya”, The Guardian,                      14                 February                            2021,       https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/feb/14/we-cannot-hope-for-anything-good-myanmar-coup-sparks-despair- for-rohingya (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Is the Myanmar coup a turning point for the Rohingya?”, Al Jazeera, 17 February 2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/program/inside-story/2021/2/17/is-the-myanmar-coup-a-turning- point-for-the-rohingyas (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Timeline of events in Myanmar since February 1 coup”, Al Jazeera, 23 February 2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/23/timeline-of-events-in-myanmar-since-february-1- coup (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“LRA’s Ongwen: A critical first ICC conviction”, Human Rights Watch, 13 March 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/03/13/lras-ongwen-critical-first-icc-conviction (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Bangladesh: Refugee Camp Fencing Cost Lives in Blaze”, Human Rights Watch, 25 March 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/03/25/bangladesh-refugee-camp-fencing-cost-lives-blaze (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“‘We have nothing’: Refugee camp fire devastates Rohingya, again”, Al Jazeera, 25 March 2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/27/rebuilding-from-the-ashes-rohingya-a-year-after-deadly-blaze (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Fire Tears Through Rohingya Camp, Leaving Thousands Homeless Once More”, The New York Times, 27 March 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/23/world/asia/bangladesh-rohingya-fire-refugees.html (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Myanmar’s Coup and Violence, Explained”, The New York Times, 24 April 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/article/myanmar-news-protests-coup.html (consulted on 1 May 2021).

OTHER

“Rohingya Culture”, AROUK, https://thearouk.org/rohingya-culture/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Rohingya’s:       their       culture”,       Canadian       Rohingya                            Development              Initiative, https://www.rohingya.ca/rohingyas-have-distinct-culture/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“The States Parties to the Rome Statute”, Assembly of States Parties, https://asp.icc- cpi.int/en_menus/asp/states parties/Pages/the states parties to the rome statute.aspx (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Study of the Question of the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Progress Report by Mr Nicodème Ruhashyankiko, Special Rapporteur”, UN Economic and Social Council, 25 June 1973, E/CN.4/Sub.2/L.583.

“Security Council, 60th year: 5158th meeting, Thursday, 31 March 2005, New York”, UN Security Council, 31 March 2005, S/PV.5158.

“Bangladesh ratifies the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court”, ICC Press Release, 24                                  March                                  2010,                                      https://www.icc- cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=bangladesh+ratifies+the+rome+statute+of+the+international+c riminal+court&ln=en (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“The Security Council’s Appalling Record of Referring Situations to the ICC”, Justice in Conflict,      23 May     2014,                   https://justiceinconflict.org/2014/05/23/the-security-councils-appalling-record-of-referring-situations-to-the-icc/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“ICC Prosecutor, Fatou Bensouda, launches Policy on Sexual & Gender-Based Crimes: Ensuring victims have a voice in court today can prevent these crimes tomorrow #EndSexualViolence”, ICC Press Release, 9 December 2014, https://www.icc- cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1073 (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“The Politicisation of the International Criminal Court by United Nations Security Council Referrals”, Accord, February 2017, https://www.accord.org.za/conflict-trends/politicisation- international-criminal-court-united-nations-security-council-referrals/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein highlights human rights concerns around the world in an address to the 36th session of the Human Rights Council in Geneva”, UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 11 September 2017, https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=22044&LangID= E (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Gallant efforts to defend the HQ against terrorist attacks and brilliant efforts to restore regional peace, security are honoured”, Senior General Min Aung Hlaing, 21 September 2017, https://www.seniorgeneralminaunghlaing.com.mm/en/1346/gallant-efforts-to-defend-the-hq- against-terrorist-attacks-and-brilliant-efforts-to-restore-regional-peace-security-are-honoured/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Understanding China’s Response to the Rakhine Crisis”, United States Institute of Peace, 2018, https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/2018-02/sr419-understanding-chinas-response-to-the-rakhine-crisis.pdf (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Analysis of Jean-Pierre Bemba’s acquittal by the International Criminal Court”, Accord, March     2018,                 https://www.accord.org.za/conflict-trends/analysis-of-jean-pierre-bembas-acquittal-by-the-international-criminal-court/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“More than 60 Rohingya babies born in Bangladesh refugee camps every day”, UNICEF Press Release, 17 May 2018, https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/more-60-rohingya-babies-born-bangladesh-refugee-camps-every-day-unicef (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“‘The Role of Social Media is Significant’: Facebook and the Fact Finding Mission on Myanmar”, Opinio Juris, 7 September 2018, http://opiniojuris.org/2018/09/07/the-role-of- social-media-is-significant-facebook-and-the-fact-finding-mission-on-myanmar/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Statement of ICC Prosecutor, Fatou Bensouda, on opening a Preliminary Examination concerning the alleged deportation of the Rohingya people from Myanmar to Bangladesh”, International Criminal Court, 18 September 2018, https://www.icc- cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=180918-otp-stat-Rohingya (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“The Republic of the Gambia institutes proceedings against the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and asks the Court to indicate provisional measures”, ICJ Press Release, 11 November 2019, https://www.icj-cij.org/public/files/case-related/178/178-20191111-PRE-01-00-EN.pdf (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“ICC judges authorise opening of an investigation into the situation in Bangladesh/Myanmar”, ICC                Press      Release,              14                  November   2019,               https://www.icc- cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1495 (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (The Gambia v. Myanmar) - Request for the indication of provisional measures - The Court to hold public hearings from Tuesday 10 to Thursday 12 December 2019”, ICJ Press Release, 18 November 2019, https://www.icj-cij.org/public/files/case-related/178/178-20191118-PRE-01-EN.pdf (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Statement of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, Fatou Bensouda, following judicial authorisation to commence an investigation into the Situation in Bangladesh/Myanmar”, International Criminal Court, 22 November 2019, https://www.icc- cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=20191122-otp-statement-bangladesh-myanmar (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Statement of the Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court as delivered at the press conference in Dhaka, Bangladesh”, International Criminal Court, 4 February 2020, https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=20200204-otp-statement (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“The ‘kalar’ controversy shows many in Myanmar aren’t listening”, Frontier Myanmar, 19 June 2020, https://www.frontiermyanmar.net/en/the-kalar-controversy-shows-many-in-myanmar-arent-listening/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Rohingya Symposium: The Rohingya Cases before International Courts and the Crime of Genocide”, Opinio Juris, 25 August 2020, https://opiniojuris.org/2020/08/25/rohingya- symposium-the-rohingya-cases-before-international-courts-and-the-crime-of-genocide/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Accounts from health care professionals indicate widespread and long-lasting impacts of sexual violence against Rohingya”, Physicians for Human Rights, 22 October 2020, https://phr.org/news/accounts-from-health-care-professionals-indicate-widespread-and-long- lasting-impacts-of-sexual-violence-against-rohingya/ (consulted on 1 May 2021).

“Operational        Update        External”,        UNHCR                             Bangladesh, March              2021, https://data2.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/86333 (consulted on 1 May 2021).

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Universiteit of Hogeschool
KU Leuven
Thesis jaar
2021
Promotor(en)
Jan Wouters