Whales against humanity: an overview and analysis of the international and European legal protection of Cetacea against anthropogenic threats in their natural habitat

Shauni Bernau
Persbericht

Walvissen vs. de mensheid

Walvis in de zee met stormachtige achtergrond

Wie was er als kind niet geïntrigeerd door dolfijnen en orka’s? Wie kijkt er niet vol verwondering naar een gigantische blauwe vinvis? Deze koningen van de zee krijgen echter al decennialang verschillende bedreigingen te verduren. Vele wetenschappers, belangenorganisaties en beleidsmakers lijken het hier over eens: walvissen doden is barbaars. Toch worden ze nog steeds gevangen en gegeten in landen als Japan en Noorwegen, ook al zijn er ontelbare regels die dit verbieden. Dan volgt logischerwijze de vraag: hoe kan dit nog steeds gebeuren?

 

Walvissen in de klimaatmars?

Waarom zouden we walvissen beschermen? Voor dierenliefhebbers is het antwoord eenvoudig: het zijn intelligente dieren, die pijn en emoties voelen, net als mensen. Er is geen enkele manier om ze op een humane wijze te vangen en te doden. Walvisvangst is al te vaak een gruwelijke aangelegenheid waarbij de dieren soms een urenlange doodsstrijd leveren en het water bloedrood kleurt.

“Beeld je in dat een paard twee of drie explosieve speren in zijn lichaam geschoten krijgt en daarmee een vleeswagen door de straten van Londen moet trekken, terwijl zijn bloed in de goot vloeit. Op die manier krijgen we een idee van de manier waarop walvissen worden geslacht. De slachters zelf geven toe dat als walvissen konden schreeuwen, de hele industrie zou worden stopgezet omdat niemand dit zou kunnen aanhoren.” – vrij vertaald naar Sir David Attenborough

Er is echter ook een meer doorslaggevende reden om deze dieren te beschermen: walvissen kunnen een rol spelen in de strijd tegen klimaatverandering. Ze slaan immers tonnen koolstof op in hun lichaam. Wanneer ze sterven, zinken ze naar de bodem en verdwijnen deze enorme hoeveelheden koolstof voor honderden jaren uit de atmosfeer. Bovendien ontdekten wetenschappers dat er op plaatsen waar er zich veel walvissen bevinden, het water rijk is aan een bepaald soort plankton dat ook koolstof opslaat. Met de klimaatverandering in het achterhoofd is het dus een interessante piste om populaties van walvissen terug te herstellen naar hun glorieperiode.

 

Een zee van regels

Reeds decennialang proberen landen regels te maken om walvisachtigen (walvissen, dolfijnen en bruinvissen) te beschermen. Talrijke verdragen en conventies, waaronder als meest markante het Walvisverdrag, verbieden het vangen van deze dieren. Elk verdrag dat iets of wat met biodiversiteit te maken heeft, lijkt hier iets over te willen zeggen. Dit is ook broodnodig, gezien walvissen nog al te vaak het slachtoffer worden van walvisvangst, bijvangst en klimaatverandering.

Toch worden we eens in de zoveel tijd nog opgeschrikt door een nieuwsartikel dat walvisvangst aan de kaak stelt en horen we dat de Japanner al eens een stukje walvis lust. Hoe kan het dat dit toch nog gebeurt als er al zoveel regels zijn?

 

Blaft wel, maar bijt niet

Al de belangrijkste internationale en Europese verdragen en conventies met betrekking tot biodiversiteit en walvisachtigen werden onderzocht op hun juridische sterktes en zwaktes. In elk verdrag bleek er wel iets te vinden dat er voor zorgt dat die mooie theoretische regels in praktijk eigenlijk heel wat minder bijtkracht hebben. De trieste winnaar hier is het Walvisverdrag, dat sinds de jaren tachtig commerciële walvisvangst verbiedt. In praktijk wordt dit verbod echter aan flarden geschoten door landen zoals Japan. Japan probeerde het verbod te omzeilen door te beweren dat zij alleen nog walvissen vangen voor wetenschappelijke doeleinden, wat wel is toegestaan door het Walvisverdrag. Australië merkte echter op dat er wel nog verdacht veel walvisvlees in de winkelrekken lag. Hierop volgde een rechtszaak voor het Internationaal Gerechtshof, waarbij dit Hof stelde dat Japan moest stoppen met haar zogenaamde ‘wetenschappelijke walvisvangst’. Na deze uitspraak ging Japan echter doodleuk verder met het vangen van walvissen, en het Walvisverdrag stond erbij en keek ernaar. De Internationale Walviscommissie, opgericht door het Walvisverdrag, kan immers geen staten straffen die zich niet aan de regels houden.

 

Hoe kunnen we beter doen?

Op dit moment bestaat er reeds enorm veel regelgeving die op de ene of de andere manier iets zegt over de juridische bescherming van walvisachtigen. Er zitten echter nog vele gaten in deze regelgeving. Gelukkig zijn er manieren om de huidige regels in praktijk sterker te maken. Zo kunnen internationale organisaties strenger toezien op de naleving van de regels, kunnen landen nauwer samenwerken en kunnen wetenschappers zoveel mogelijk betrokken worden bij het maken van de regels.

Om op wetgevend vlak iets te bereiken mogen we echter het sociale en culturele veld niet uit het oog verliezen. Juristen die palaveren over wetgeving, dat is natuurlijk makkelijk. Om op juridisch vlak echter iets te veranderen moet er eerst verandering komen in de manier waarop we over dieren denken. Beleidsmakers overtuigen? Dat begint bij ons.

Bibliografie

1. Legislation

1.1 International legislation

Convention on Biological Diversity of 5 June 1992, United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 1760, 79.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora of 3 March 1973, United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 993, 243.

Convention on the conservation of migratory species of wild animals of 23 June 1979, United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 1651, 333.

International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling of 2 December 1946, United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 161, 72.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Schedule as amended by the Commission at the 67th Meeting”, https://archive.iwc.int/pages/view.php?ref=3606&k=.

Paris Agreement of 12 December 2015, United Nations Treaty Series, annex A, no 54113.

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 1833, 3.

World Heritage Convention of 16 November 1972, United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 1037, 151.

 

1.2 Regional legislation

Convention for the protection of the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic of 22 September 1992, United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 2354, 67.

Agreement on cooperation in research, conservation and management of marine mammals in the North Atlantic of 9 April 1992, http://nammco.wpengine.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/nammco-agreement-with-signatures-and-logo.pdf.

Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas of 17 March 1992, United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 1772, 217.

Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats of 19 September 1979, Treaty Series of the Council of Europe, no. 104.

Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora of 21 May 1992, Official Journal L, 206 22 June 1992, 7-50.

Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources of 20 May 1980, United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 1329, 47.

 

1.3 Soft law

Annex to Resolution 12.17 ‘Action plan for the protection and conservation of South Atlantic whales’ of the Conference of the Parties (s.d.), www.cms.int/sites/default/files/document/cms_cop12_res.12.17_annex_whales_south_atlantic_e.pdf.

Conf. 11.4 ‘Conservation of cetaceans, trade in cetacean specimens and the relationship with the International Whaling Commission’ of the Conference of the Parties (s.d.), https://cites.org/sites/default/files/document/E-Res-11-04-R12.pdf.

Conf. 11.17 ‘National reports’ of the Conference of the Parties (s.d.), https://cites.org/sites/default/files/document/E-Res-11-17-R18.pdf.

Conf. 11.17 ‘National reports’ of the Conference of the Parties (s.d.), https://cites.org/sites/default/files/document/E-Res-11-17-R18.pdf.

Conf. 13.11 ‘Wild meat’ of the Conference of the Parties (s.d.), https://cites.org/sites/default/files/document/E-Res-13-11-R18.pdf.

Conf. 18.5 ‘Cooperation and synergy with the World Heritage Convention’ of the Conference of the Parties (s.d.), https://cites.org/sites/default/files/document/E-Res-18-05.pdf.

Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention of the Intergovernmental Committee for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (31 July 2021), http://whc.unesco.org/en/guidelines/ WHC.21/01 (2021).

Recommendation No. 16 of the standing committee on areas of special conservation interest (9 June 1989), https://search.coe.int/bern-convention/Pages/result_details.aspx?ObjectId=0900001680746c25.

Recommendation of the standing committee on areas of special conservation interest (9 June 1989), https://search.coe.int/bern-convention/Pages/result_details.aspx?ObjectId=0900001680746c25.

Resolution 11.22 ‘Life capture of cetaceans from the wild for commercial purposes’ of the Conference of the Parties (October 2017), www.cms.int/sites/default/files/document/cms_cop12_res.11.22%28rev.cop12%29_live-capture-cetaceans_e_0.pdf.

Resolution 12.9 ‘Establishment of Review Mechanism and a National Legislation Programme’ of the Conference of the Parties (October 2017), www.cms.int/sites/default/files/document/cms_cop12_res.12.9_review-mechanism_e_0.pdf.

Resolution 12.14 ‘Adverse impacts of anthropogenic noise on cetaceans and other migratory species’ of the Conference of the Parties (October 2017), www.cms.int/sites/default/files/document/cms_cop12_res.12.14_marine-noise_e.pdf.

Resolution 12.15 ‘Aquatic wild meat’ of the Conference of the Parties (October 2017), www.cms.int/sites/default/files/document/cms_cop12_res.12.15_aquatic_wild_meat_e.pdf.

Resolution 12.21 ‘Climate change and migratory species’ of the Conference of the Parties (October 2017), www.cms.int/sites/default/files/document/cms_cop12_res.12.21_climate-change_e.pdf.

Resolution 12.22 ‘Bycatch’ of the Conference of the Parties (October 2017), www.cms.int/sites/default/files/document/cms_cop12_res.12.22_bycatch_e.pdf.

Resolution Conf. 14.8 ‘Periodic Review of species included in Appendices I and II of the Conference of the Parties’ (s.d.), https://cites.org/sites/default/files/document/E-Res-14-08-R17_0.pdf.

Resolution No. 4 ‘listing endangered natural habitats requiring specific conservation measures’ of the Standing Committee (6 December 1996), https://search.coe.int/bern-convention/Pages/result_details.aspx?ObjectId=09000016807469e7.

Resolution No. 6 ‘listing the species requiring specific habitat conservation measures’ of the Standing Committee (4 December 1998), https://search.coe.int/bern-convention/Pages/result_details.aspx?ObjectId=0900001680746afc.

Resolution No. 8 ‘on the national designation of adopted Emerald sites and the implementation of management, monitoring and reporting measures’ of the Standing Committee (30 November 2012), https://rm.coe.int/1680746515.

Resolution SC-CAMLR-XV/BG/13 ‘Resolution on environmental change and cetaceans’ of the IWC (s.d.), https://meetings.ccamlr.org/en/sc-camlr-xv/bg/13.

UNEP-WCMC and CITES Secretariat, “SPECIES+” (database), https://speciesplus.net/species#/taxon_concepts?taxonomy=cites_eu&taxon_concept_query=whale&geo_entities_ids=&geo_entity_scope=cites&page=1.

 

2. Jurisprudence

ICJ 31 March 2014, ‘Whaling in the Antarctic’, I.C.J. Reports 2014, 226.

 

3. Doctrine

3.1 Books

BRAKES, P., BUTTERWORTH, A., SIMMONDS, M. and LYMBERY, P. (eds.), Troubled waters, s.l., Creasy Hood, 2004, 144 p.

CLAPHAM, P. J., “Whaling, modern” in B. WÜRSIG, J. G. M. THEWISSEN and K. M. KOVACS (eds.), Encyclopedia of marine mammals, s.l., Elsevier Inc., 2018, 1070-1074.

CLIQUET, A., “Mariene beschermde gebieden: een druppel in de oceaan?”, (81) 94-95  in CLIQUET, A. and MAES, F. (eds.), Recht door zee. Hedendaags internationaal zee- en maritiem recht, Antwerpen-Apeldoorn, Maklu, 2015, 470 p.

DOLMAN, S. J. and MOORE, M. J., “Welfare Implications of Cetacean Bycatch and Entanglements”, 41-65 in A. BUTTERWORTH (ed.), Marine Mammal Welfare, s.l., Springer, 2017, xxvi + 297 p.

 

3.2 Articles

APPOO, J., VAN DE CROMMENACKER, J., SANCHEZ, C. and CURRIE, J., “The use of Aldabra and its protected waters by marine mammals”, www.researchgate.net/publication/349533675_The_Use_of_Aldabra_and_its_Protected_Waters_by_Marine_Mammals.

BRIDGEWATER, C., “The next step in North Atlantic Whale Protection: a closer look at whale-watch guidelines for the Northeast”, Ocean and Coastal Law Journal 2001, 347-370.

BURNS, W. C. G., “The Berlin Initiative on Strengthening the Conservation Agenda of the International Whaling Commission: toward a new era for cetaceans”, Review of European Comparative & International Environmental Law 2004, 72-84.

BURNS, W. C. G., “The Agreement of the Conservation of cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS): a regional response to the threats facing cetaceans”, Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 1998, 113-133.

CHAMI, R., COSIMANO, T., FULLENKAMP, C. and OZTOSUN, S., “Nature’s solution to climate change”, Finance & Development 2019, 34-38.

CRESSEY, D., “World’s whaling slaughter tallied”, Nature 2015, 140-141.

D’AMATO, A., and CHOPRA, S. K., “Whales: their emerging right to life”, American Journal of International Law 2010, 21-62.

DE STEPHANIS, R., GIMÉNEZ, J., CARPINELLI, E., GUTIERREZ-EXPOSITO, C. and CANADAS, A., “As main meal for sperm whales: Plastics debris”, Marine Pollution Bulletin 2013, 206-214.

DEL CASTILLO, L., “The Whaling in the Antarctic Case, Applying the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling as a Self-contained Regime”, China Oceans Law Review 2017, 75-108.

DICENSO, M., “Trouble on the high seas: a need for change in the wake of Australia v. Japan”, B. C. Int’l & Comp. L. Rev. 2016, 13-27.

DIEKJOBST, R., “The international whaling regime – a law with no teeth?”, Völkerrechtsblog 2019.

DOLMAN, S., BAULCH, S., EVANS, P. G. H., READ, F. and RITTER, F., “Towards an EU Action plan on Cetacean Bycatch”, Marine Policy 2016, 67-75.

FREELAND, S. and DRYSDALE, J., “Co-operation or chaos – article 65 of United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the future of the International Whaling Commission”, Macquarie Journal of International and Comparative Environmental Law 2005, 1-36.

GALES, N., LEAPER, R. and PAPASTAVROU, V., “Is Japan’s whaling humane?”, Marine Policy 2008, 408-412.

GOODWIN, E. J., “The World Heritage Convention, the environment, and compliance”, Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy 2009, 157-198.

HOEY, L., “The battle over scientific whaling: a new proposal to stop Japan’s lethal research and reform the International Whaling Commission”, William & Mary Environmental Law and Policy Review 2017, 435-470.

KOJIMA, C., “Japan’s Decision to Withdraw from the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling”, Asia-Pacific Journal of Ocean Law and Policy 2019, 93-96.

KOVACS, K. M. and LYDERSEN, C., “Climate change impacts on seals and whales in the North Atlantic Arctic and adjacent shelf seas”, Science Progress 2008, 117-150.

LASCELLES, B., NOTARBARTOLO DI SCIARA, G., AGARDY, T., CUTTELOD, A., ECKERT, S., GLOWKA, L., HOYT, E., LLEWELLYN, F., LOUAZO, M., RIDOUX, V. and TETLEY, M. J., “Migratory marine species: their status, threats and conservation management needs”, Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 2014, 111-127.

MAMZER, M., “Ritual slaughter: the tradition of pilot whale hunting on the Faroe Islands”, Frontiers in Veterinary Science 2021, 1-13.

MATANICH, J., “A treaty comes of age for the ancient ones: implications of the law of the sea for the regulation of whaling”, International Legal Perspectives 1996, 37-72.

MILLER, D. G. M., SABOURENKOV, E. N. and RAMM, D. C., “Managing Antarctic Marine Living Resources: the CCAMLR approach”, International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 2004, 317-364.

MOORE, M. J., “How we all kill whales”, ICES Journal of Marine Science 2014, 760-763.

NAFZIGER, J. A. R., “Global conservation and management of marine mammals”, San Diego Law Review 1980, 591-616.

NORRIS, N., “Lethal speed: an analysis of the proposed rule to implement vessel speed restrictions and the impact on the declining right whale population as well as the shipping and whale-watching industries”, Ocean and Coastal Law Journal 2008, 339-368.

NUKAMP, H. and NOLLKAEMPER, A., “The protection of small cetaceans in the face of uncertainty: an analysis of the ASCOBANS Agreement”, Georgetown International Environmental Law Review 1997, 281-302.

ORAMS, M. B., “Tourists getting close to whales, is it what whale-watching is all about?”, Tourism Management 2000, 561-569.

PARSONS, E. C. M., “The Negative Impacts of Whale-Watching”, Journal of Marine Biology 2012, 2-3.

PERSHING, A. J., CHRISTENSEN, L. B., RECORD, N. R., SHERWOOD, G. D. and STETSON, P. B., “The impact of whaling on the ocean carbon cycle: why bigger was better”, Plos One 2010, e12444.

SCHIFFMAN, H. S., “The International Whaling Commission: challenges from within and without”, ILSA Journal of International and Comparative Law, 367-376.

SCHIFFMAN, H. S., “U.S. membership in UNCLOS: what effects for the marine environment?”, ILSA Journal of International and Comparative Law 2004-2005, 477-484.

SCHOLZ, W., “Injecting Compassion into International Wildlife Law: From Conservation to Protection?“, Transnational Environmental Law 2017, 463-484.

SCHOLTZ, W., “Killing them softly? Animal welfare and the inhumanity of whale killing”, Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy 2017, 18-37.

SCHOUKENS, H. and CLIQUET, A., “Schijnoverwinning in de strijd tegen de walvisjacht”, Juristenkrant 2014, 15-16.

SIGLER, M., “The Effects of Plastic Pollution on Aquatic Wildlife: Current Situations and Future Solutions”, Water Air Soil Pollut 2014.

SIMMONDS, J., “UNESCO World Heritage Convention”, Art Antiquity and Law 1997, 251-282.

TROUWBORST, A., “Conserving European biodiversity in a changing climate: the Bern Convention, the European Union Birds and Habitats Directives and the adaptation of nature to climate change”, Review of European comparative & international environmental law 2011, 62-77.

VIIKARI, L., “Rural local communities as holders of human rights: from aboriginal subsistence whaling to small-scale local community whaling?”, Nordic Journal of Human Rights 2022, 1-19.

WEED, C., “The world beyond Seaworld: a comparative analysis of international law protecting cetacea in captivity”, Ocean and Coastal Law Journal 2018, 281-327.

WOLD, C., “Japan’s resumption of commercial whaling and its duty to cooperate with the International Whaling Commission”, Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation 2020, 87-144.

ZEMANTAUSKI, J., “Has the Law of the Sea Convention strengthened the conservation ability of the International Whaling Commission”, University of Miami Inter-American Law Review 2012, 325-346.

 

4. Other sources

4.1 Databases

UNEP-WCMC and CITES Secretariat, “SPECIES+” (database), https://speciesplus.net/species#/taxon_concepts?taxonomy=cites_eu&taxon_concept_query=whale&geo_entities_ids=&geo_entity_scope=cites&page=1.

 

4.2 Reports

ASCOBANS National Report ASCOBANS/AC27/NR.8 of the Advisory Committee (24 June 2022), www.ascobans.org/sites/default/files/document/ascobans_ac27_nr8_belgium.pdf.

CITES, “Implementation report”, https://cites.org/eng/resources/reports/Implementation_report.

R. E. MITCHELL, J. CLARK, P. REYES, L. JONES, J. PEARCE, C. E. EDWARDS and D. AGNEW, “Preliminary results of trials testing modified longline gear ‘trotlines’ in presence of cetaceans in subarea 48.3”, https://meetings.ccamlr.org/en/wg-fsa-08/44.

Report No 10/2020 ‘State of nature in the EU. Results from reporting under the nature directives 2013-2018’ of the European Environment Agency’ (2020), https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/state-of-nature-in-the-eu-2020/.

Technical Report ‘on the situation of small cetaceans in the Mediterranean and Black Seas and Contiguous Waters, and the impact of fishing gear and fishery practices on these animals’ of Greenpeace International (10 June 1991), https://rm.coe.int/09000016809dac25.

 

4.3 Websites

ACCOBAMS, “ACCOBAMS Strategy”, https://accobams.org/documents-resolutions/accobams-strategy/.

ACCOBAMS, “Anthropogenic noise”, https://accobams.org/conservations-action/anthropogenic-noise/.

ACCOBAMS, “Bycatch”, https://accobams.org/species_/threats/.

ACCOBAMS, “Bycatch & depredation”, https://accobams.org/conservations-action/bycatch-depredation/.

ACCOBAMS, “Cetacean watching”, https://accobams.org/conservations-action/cetacean-watching/;

ACCOBAMS, “Conferences on cetacean conservation in South Mediterranean countries”, https://accobams.org/meetings_page/biennial-conferences/.

ACCOBAMS, “Conservation Status Reports”, https://accobams.org/news-pubblications/conservation-status-reports/.

ACCOBAMS, “Guidelines”, https://accobams.org/documents-resolutions/guidelines/.

ACCOBAMS, “High Quality Whale Watching Certificate”, https://accobams.org/main-activites/high-quality-whale-watching-certificate/.

ACCOBAMS, “Introduction”, https://accobams.org/about/introduction/.

ACCOBAMS, “List of contracting parties and signatories to the agreement”, www.accobams.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/ACCOBAMS-Parties-and-signatories.pdf.

ACCOBAMS, “Resolutions”, https://accobams.org/documents-resolutions/resolutions/.

ACCOBAMS, “Species Conservation Management Plans”, https://accobams.org/species_/conservation-plans/.

ACCOBAMS, “The Depredation Project”, https://accobams.org/the-depredation-project-ongoing/.

ACCOBAMS, “The MAVA 1 Project (2015-2018)”, https://accobams.org/main-activites/the-mava-1-project-2015-2018/.

ACCOBAMS, “The Medbycatch Project (ongoing)”, https://accobams.org/the-mava-2-project-ongoing/.

ACCOBAMS, “Workshops”, https://accobams.org/meetings_page/workshops/.

ASCOBANS, “Action Plans”, www.ascobans.org/en/documents/action-plans.

ASCOBANS, “Awards”, www.ascobans.org/en/awards.

ASCOBANS, “ASCOBANS”, www.ascobans.org/.

ASCOBANS, “ASCOBANS”, www.ascobans.org/en/legalinstrument/ascobans.

ASCOBANS, “Guidelines”, www.ascobans.org/en/publications/guidelines.

ASCOBANS, “How to become a party”, www.ascobans.org/en/about/how-to-become-a-party.

ASCOBANS, “Informal Working Group on Large Cetaceans”, www.ascobans.org/en/working_group/large_cetaceans.

ASCOBANS, “MOP Resolutions in effect”, www.ascobans.org/en/documents/mop-resolutions.

ASCOBANS, “National reports”, www.ascobans.org/en/documents/national-reports.

ASCOBANS, “Organizational structure”, www.ascobans.org/en/about/organizational-structure.

ASCOBANS, “Projects”, www.ascobans.org/en/projects.

ASCOBANS, “Scientific publications”, www.ascobans.org/en/publications/scientific.

ASCOBANS, “Species”, www.ascobans.org/en/species.

ASCOBANS, “Threats”, www.ascobans.org/en/species/threats.

ASCOBANS, “What you can do to protect whales, dolphins and porpoises”, www.ascobans.org/en/species/take%20action%21.

ASCOBANS, “Working Groups”, www.ascobans.org/en/working-groups.

ASCOBANS, “Workshops”, www.ascobans.org/en/meetings/workshops.

CCAMLR, “About CCAMLR”, www.ccamlr.org/en/organisation.

CCAMLR, “Achievements and challenges”, www.ccamlr.org/en/organisation/key-challenges-and-achievements.

CHM, “Ecologically or Biologically Significant Areas (EBSAs) East Levantine Canyons (ELCA)”, https://chm.cbd.int/database/record?documentID=204120.

CHM, “Ecologically or Biologically Significant Areas (EBSAs) North Aegean”, https://chm.cbd.int/database/record?documentID=204115.

CHM, “Ecologically or Biologically Significant Areas (EBSAs) Sicilian Channel”, https://chm.cbd.int/database/record?documentID=204108.

CHM, “Ecologically or Biologically Significant Areas (EBSAs) Southern Gotland Harbour Porpoise Area”, https://chm.cbd.int/database/record?documentID=241821.

CHM, “The Clearing-House Mechanism of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CHM)”, https://chm.cbd.int/database/record?documentID=204128.

CITES, “Ad hoc reports”, https://cites.org/eng/resources/reports/Ad_hoc_reports.

CITES, “Animals and Plants Committees”, https://cites.org/eng/disc/ac_pc.php.

CITES, “Annual illegal trade report”, https://cites.org/eng/resources/reports/Annual_Illegal_trade_report.

CITES, “Annual report”, https://cites.org/eng/imp/reporting_requirements/annual_report.

CITES, “Appendices”, https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php.

CITES, “Checklist of CITES species”, https://checklist.cites.org/#/en.

CITES, “Conference of the Parties”, https://cites.org/eng/disc/cop.php.

CITES, “Countries currently subject to a recommendation to suspend trade"

https://cites.org/eng/resources/ref/suspend.php.

CITES, “How CITES works”, https://cites.org/eng/disc/how.php.

CITES, https://cites.org/sites/default/files/i/map/cites_map_l.gif.

CITES, “Introduction from the sea”, https://cites.org/eng/prog/ifs.php.

CITES, “List of contracting parties”, https://cites.org/eng/disc/parties/chronolo.php.

CITES, “List of parties to the Convention”, https://cites.org/eng/disc/parties/index.php.

CITES, “Periodic review for species included in Appendices I and II, https://cites.org/eng/prog/periodicreview.

CITES, “Reservations entered by parties”, https://cites.org/eng/app/reserve.php.

CITES, “Transport of live specimens”, https://cites.org/eng/prog/imp/Transport_of_live_specimens.

CITES, “The CITES Secretariat”, https://cites.org/eng/disc/sec/index.php.

CMS, “About the CMS Small Grants Programme”, www.cms.int/en/activities/small-grants/about.

CMS, “Bycatch”, www.cms.int/en/page/bycatch; see also the chapter on ASCOBANS and ACCOBAMS.

CMS “CMS”, www.cms.int/en/legalinstrument/cms.

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CMS, “Pacific Islands cetaceans”, www.cms.int/pacific-cetaceans/.

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EUROPEAN COMMISSION, “International Whaling”, https://ec.europa.eu/environment/biodiversity/animal_welfare/whaling.htm.

EUROPEAN COMMISSION, “Management of Natura 2000 sites”, https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/management/index_en.htm.

EUROPEAN COMMISSION, “Natura 2000”, https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/index_en.htm.

EUROPEAN COMMISSION, “Natura 2000 in the Marine Environment”, https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/marine/index_en.htm.

EUROPEAN COMMISSION, “Natura 2000 sites designation”, https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/sites/index_en.htm.

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INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Commercial whaling”, https://iwc.int/management-and-conservation/whaling/commercial.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Commission sub-groups”, https://iwc.int/commission-sub-groups.

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INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Conservation Management Plans”, https://iwc.int/management-and-conservation/conservation-management-plans.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Environmental concerns”, https://iwc.int/management-and-conservation/environment.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Extinction and cetaceans”, https://iwc.int/management-and-conservation/cetaceans-and-extinction.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Future direction of IWC & special permit whaling in IWC agenda”, https://iwc.int/resources/media-resources/news/future-direction-of-iwc-and-special-permit-whaling.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “History and purpose”, https://iwc.int/commission/history-and-purpose.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “How to join the IWC”, https://iwc.int/commission/joining-the-iwc.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “How to participate at the IWC”, https://iwc.int/commission/_Participation.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Iceland”, https://iwc.int/iceland.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Infractions”, https://iwc.int/management-and-conservation/infractions.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Membership”, https://iwc.int/members.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Membership and contracting governments”, https://iwc.int/commission/members.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Population status”, https://iwc.int/about-whales/status.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Principles and guidelines for large whale entanglement response efforts”, https://iwc.int/management-and-conservation/entanglement/best-practice-guidelines-for-entanglement-responde.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Resolutions”, https://iwc.int/commission/convention/resolutions.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Secretariat”, https://iwc.int/commission/secretariat.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Ship strikes: collisions between whales and vessels”, https://iwc.int/management-and-conservation/ship-strikes.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Small cetacean catches for food, bait, trade and traditional use”, https://iwc.int/management-and-conservation/smallcetacean/catches-food-bait-trade-and-traditional-use.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Small cetaceans – dolphins and porpoises”,  https://iwc.int/management-and-conservation/smallcetacean.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Special permit whaling”, https://iwc.int/management-and-conservation/whaling/permits.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “State of the cetacean environment: IWC report series”, https://iwc.int/management-and-conservation/environment/socer-report.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Strandings Initiative”, https://iwc.int/management-and-conservation/strandings/strandings-initiative.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Task teams”, https://iwc.int/task-teams.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “The International Whaling Commission – IWC”, https://iwc.int/en/.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “The Revised Management Procedure”, https://iwc.int/management-and-conservation/rmp.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Welfare issues”, https://iwc.int/management-and-conservation/welfare.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Whale entanglement – building a global response”, https://iwc.int/management-and-conservation/entanglement.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Whale sanctuaries”, https://iwc.int/management-and-conservation/sanctuaries.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION, “Whale watching”, https://iwc.int/management-and-conservation/whalewatching.

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OSPAR COMMISSION, “Region III: Celtic Seas”, www.ospar.org/convention/the-north-east-atlantic/iii.

OSPAR COMMISSION, “Region IV: Bay of Biscay and Iberian Coast”, www.ospar.org/convention/the-north-east-atlantic/iv.

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Universiteit of Hogeschool
Master of Laws in de rechten
Publicatiejaar
2022
Promotor(en)
Prof. dr. An Cliquet
Kernwoorden
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