Politisering als drijvende kracht achter een democratische Europese energietransitie

Jonas
Meuleman

Onze samenleving verkeert in een volatiel politiek klimaat waar het energielandschap langzaam richting duurzaamheid verschuift. Hernieuwbare energie is een hoeksteen geworden van het hedendaagse energiebeleid, dat niet alleen resoneert met klimaatdoelstellingen, maar ook met geopolitieke complexiteit. In de queeste naar "net zero" en energieonafhankelijkheid komt het begrip “politisering” om de hoek kijken.

Door politisering is hernieuwbare energie prominent aanwezig in beleidsdiscussies over de energietransitie, industriële competitiviteit, en strategische autonomie. Een breed scala aan politieke kopzorgen dus, dat ervoor heeft gezorgd dat hernieuwbare energie hoog op de politieke agenda is komen te staan en de samenleving steeds sterker achter een duurzamer energiemodel staat. Politisering wordt echter meestal gezien als een beperking in het realiseren van beleidsuitkomsten. Deze studie toont echter aan dat politisering een positieve bijdrage heeft in het waarmaken van de energietransitie.

Windmolens in Montenegro, als illustratie van hernieuwbare energie

Foto door Appolinary Kalashnikova via Unsplash

Politisering en democratisering

Politisering?

Politisering kan kort beschreven worden als het proces waarbij een beleidsonderwerp wint aan belang op de politieke agenda en onderwerp wordt van toenemende polarisatie. Het begrip werd gepionierd om Europese integratie in de binnenlandse politiek van de lidstaten te integreren, als poging om te begrijpen waarom Europese politiek steeds ingewikkelder is geworden. 

Politisering werd dus meestal in een negatief licht gezet. Het werd namelijk gezien als een belemmering om effectieve oplossingen te leveren voor dringende beleidsproblemen op het Europese niveau — een bedreiging voor de zogenaamde outputlegitimiteit van de EU.

Klimaatbeleid, waar hernieuwbaar energiebeleid onder valt, is dus een schoolvoorbeeld van een gepolitiseerd beleidsthema. Het grote verschil is dat politisering hier wel vaker wordt gezien als een noodzaak om te verzekeren dat er echt beleid wordt gevoerd. Hier zou politisering dus geen belemmering moeten zijn, maar juist een drijvende factor achter effectieve beleidsuitkomsten. In dit artikel draag ik die drijvende kracht voor van politisering om duurzame beleidsuitkomsten te realiseren binnen het Europese hernieuwbare energiebeleid.

Een gepolitiseerd en democratischer hernieuwbaar energiebeleid?

Hernieuwbare energie is een voorbeeld van crisis-gerelateerde politisering. In tijden van klimaatdisruptie en economische en geopolitieke turbulentie neemt het belang van duurzame energie toe in de publieke opinie en high politics — vanwege zorgen rond onder meer kostenefficiëntie en energiesoevereiniteit. Hernieuwbare energie is ook onder druk komen te staan omwille van politieke positionering, wanneer gepolariseerde belangen samenkomen in de politieke arena. Tenslotte brengt politisering ook meer stemmen in die arena om een invloed uit te brengen op de beleidsvorming. Naarmate hernieuwbare energie actiever aan bod komt in beleidsdiscussies, mobiliseren meer actoren (denk aan klimaatdenktanks als Ember, E3G, alsook andere niet-statelijke actoren) en neemt hun stem toe in belang.

De transitie richting een duurzamere toekomst is steeds vaker een topic binnen high politics, wat dus gepaard gaat met een uitbreiding van stemmen die een rol spelen binnen de ontwikkeling van duurzaam beleid. In essentie is er dus een grotere rol voor het publiek en andere niet-gouvernementele actoren. Die bottom-up versterking kan haar invloed bewerkstelligen op verschillende manieren, waaronder via lokale gemeenschappen rond hernieuwbare energie. 

Kortom, door politisering ontstaat er een grotere druk bij overheden om responsief te zijn naar die sterkere bottom-up belangen (ook vanop verschillende bestuursniveaus) en dus duurzame beleidsresultaten te realiseren via sterk beleid. Beleidsresponsiviteit is een fundament van de democratie, en politisering hoort dus die responsiviteit te versterken.

Politisering bevordert de energietransitie

Om te onderzoeken of politisering een positief effect heeft op de rol van hernieuwbare energie in de EU, wat een duurzame beleidsuitkomst is, werd statistisch onderzoek uitgevoerd op basis van verschillende databronnen. In concreto werd politisering in samenspel gezet met het percentage van hernieuwbare energie in de energiemix, alsook een reeks economische en politiek-institutionele factoren.

Democratische realisatie van duurzame beleidsuitkomsten

Small multiples visualisatie van politisering (linker y-as, van 0 tot 1) en de rol van hernieuwbare energie (rechter y-as, in %) in EU-lidstaten

Visualisatie door de auteur. Eigen politiseringsindex o.b.v. verschillende databronnen, Eurostat voor percentage hernieuwbare energie.

Zowel de politisering van hernieuwbare energie als haar rol in nationaal energiegebruik is een opgang aan het maken sinds 2009, te zien in bovenstaande figuur. Deze samenhang werd ook statistisch bewezen, waar politisering effectief positief werd geassocieerd met een positieve evolutie in de rol van hernieuwbare energie. Toch zijn hier een aantal kanttekeningen te maken. Zo is politisering voornamelijk een bevorderende factor wanneer hernieuwbare energie reeds momentum draagt, door in vorige jaren al gegroeid te zijn. Dit betekent dat politisering hier voornamelijk leidt tot betere beleidsresponsiviteit als de beleidskwestie al enig momentum draagt. 

Dit momentum kan afkomstig zijn van zowel bottom-up als top-down politisering, wat suggereert dat bottom-up politisering ook duurzame beleidsresultaten in de EU kan aansturen. Van hieruit zijn belangrijke conclusies te trekken over het democratisch potentieel van politisering. Dit bewijst namelijk dat beleidsverandering niet alleen een top-down proces is en dat er dynamisch rekening moet worden gehouden met de voorkeuren van het publiek, in plaats van alleen na de bundeling van de publieke opinie tijdens verkiezingen. 

Aangezien hernieuwbare energie bovendien een deel van de oplossing is voor het nefaste probleem van de klimaatverandering, kan deze bevinding worden geëxtrapoleerd naar andere dimensies van duurzame transformatie (bv. natuurherstel). Op basis van deze bevinding kan worden aanbevolen dat beleidsmakers kenmerken van participatieve democratie versterken, zodat gepolitiseerde beleidskwesties en bottom-up stemmen gemakkelijker hun weg vinden naar de beleidsvorming.

It’s the economy (and some governance), stupid

De heterogene contexten van de 27 EU-lidstaten werden in rekening gebracht door de inclusie van verschillende economische en politiek-institutionele factoren. Hier werd duidelijk dat variabelen die doorgaans een beeld geven van goed openbaar bestuur niet meteen gelinkt zijn aan een uitbreiding van hernieuwbare energie. Grote overheden en rigoureuze besluitvormingsprocessen faciliteren dus niet noodzakelijkerwijs de flexibele besluitvorming waar duurzame transformatie, inclusief de energietransitie, baat bij zou hebben.

Economische factoren kwamen als meest invloedrijk naar voor, met een focus op indicatoren die licht brengen aan de fiscale ruimte voor overheidsinvesteringen in duurzame beleidsdoelen, zoals de uitbreiding van hernieuwbare energie. Een succesvolle duurzame transformatie zal namelijk een aanzienlijke toename van overheidsinvesteringen vereisen. Vandaar is het essentieel om de investeringscapaciteit niet enkel te laten afhangen van de fiscale speelruimte. Een veelvoud aan kostenlasten zal de duurzame transformatie wellicht politiseren en de schuld/BBP-ratio’s opdrijven. Beperkte begrotingsruimte zal duurzame beleidsresultaten in de weg staan, indien het begrotingsbeleid niet wordt verenigd met duurzame transformatie.

Bibliografie

Amblard, L., & Carter, C. (2022). Implementing environmental Europe: Non-linearity, nature and institutions. Environmental Science & Policy, 136, 442–446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2022.07.011

Anderson, B., Böhmelt, T., & Ward, H. (2017). Public opinion and environmental policy output: a cross-national analysis of energy policies in Europe. Environmental Research Letters, 12(11), 114011. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa8f80

Apergis, N., & Pinar, M. (2021). The role of party polarization in renewable energy consumption: Fresh evidence across the EU countries. Energy Policy, 157, 112518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112518

Bailey, D., & Katz, J. N. (2011). Implementing Panel-Corrected Standard Errors in R: The pcse Package. Journal of Statistical Software, 42(Code Snippet 1). https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v042.c01

Bakker, R., Hooghe, L., Jolly, S., Marks, G., Polk, J., Rovny, J., Steenbergen, M., & Vachudova, M. (2021). Chapel Hill Expert Survey (CHES) Europe 1999-2019 trend file [Dataset; EUI Research Data]. Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies. https://hdl.handle.net/1814/69975

Baltagi, B. H. (2021). Econometric Analysis of Panel Data (6th ed.). Springer Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53953-5

Bartels, B. (2008). Beyond ‘“Fixed versus Random Effects”’: A Framework for Improving Substantive and Statistical Analysis of Panel, Time-Series Cross-Sectional, and Multilevel Data. Paper presented at the Political Methodology Conference. Ann Arbor, MI. 9-12 July. https://home.gwu.edu/~bartels/cluster.pdf

Beck, N., & Katz, J. N. (1995). What To Do (and Not to Do) with Time-Series Cross-Section Data. American Political Science Review, 89(3), 634–647. https://doi.org/10.2307/2082979

Bekirsky, N., Hoicka, C., Brisbois, M., & Ramirez Camargo, L. (2022). Many actors amongst multiple renewables: A systematic review of actor involvement in complementarity of renewable energy sources. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 161, 112368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112368

Bell, A., & Jones, K. (2014). Explaining Fixed effects: random effects modeling of Time-Series Cross-Sectional and panel data. Political Science Research and Methods, 3(1), 133–153. https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2014.7

Belsley, D. A., Kuh, E., & Welsch, R. E. (1980). Regression diagnostics. In Wiley series in probability and statistics. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471725153

Benson, D. J., & Russel, D. (2015). Patterns of EU Energy Policy Outputs: Incrementalism or Punctuated Equilibrium? West European Politics, 38(1), 185–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2014.936707

Biedenkopf, K. (2021). Polish Climate Policy Narratives: Uniqueness, Alternative Pathways, and Nascent Polarisation. Politics and Governance, 9(3), 391–400. https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v9i3.4349

Biedenkopf, K., Costa, O., & Góra, M. (2021). Introduction: shades of contestation and politicisation of CFSP. European Security, 30(3), 325–343. https://doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2021.1964473

Birol, F. (2022, December 5). Europe urgently needs a new industrial master plan. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/2a68ef41-76ee-4406-a1f1-b64b2efc58a0

Bølstad, J. (2014). Dynamics of European integration: Public opinion in the core and periphery. European Union Politics, 16(1), 23–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/1465116514551303

Bondarouk, E., & Mastenbroek, E. (2017). Reconsidering EU Compliance: Implementation performance in the field of environmental policy. Environmental Policy and Governance, 28(1), 15–27. https://doi.org/10.1002/eet.1761

Börzel, T. A., & Risse, T. (2017). From the euro to the Schengen crises: European integration theories, politicization, and identity politics. Journal of European Public Policy, 25(1), 83–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2017.1310281

Brendler, V., & Thomann, E. (2023). Does institutional misfit trigger customisation instead of non-compliance? West European Politics, 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2023.2166734

Bressanelli, E., Koop, C., & Reh, C. (2020). EU Actors under pressure: politicisation and depoliticisation as strategic responses. Journal of European Public Policy, 27(3), 329–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2020.1713193

Breusch, T. (1978). TESTING FOR AUTOCORRELATION IN DYNAMIC LINEAR MODELS*. Australian Economic Papers, 17(31), 334–355. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8454.1978.tb00635.x

Breusch, T., & Pagan, A. (1979). A simple test for heteroscedasticity and random coefficient variation. Econometrica, 47(5), 1287. https://doi.org/10.2307/1911963

Bromley-Trujillo, R., & Poe, J. (2020). The importance of salience: public opinion and state policy action on climate change. Journal of Public Policy, 40(2), 280–304. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0143814x18000375

Burke, M. J., & Stephens, J. C. (2018). Political power and renewable energy futures: A critical review. Energy Research & Social Science, 35, 78–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.10.018

Cerna, L. (2013). The Nature of Policy Change and Implementation: A Review of Different Theoretical Approaches. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD]. https://www.oecd.org/education/ceri/The%20Nature%20of%20Policy%20Change…

Chryssogelos, A. (2018). Europeanisation as de-politicisation, crisis as re-politicisation: the case of Greek foreign policy during the Eurozone crisis. Journal of European Integration, 41(5), 605–621. https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2018.1544249

Cornago, E. (2022, December 13). Europe may not find energy efficiency sexy — but it’s crucial. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/33474695-5950-4393-af41-a15eb6649c58

Croissant, Y., & Millo, G. (2008). Panel Data Econometrics in R: The plm Package. Journal of Statistical Software, 27(2). https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v027.i02

Czyżak, P., Brown, S., Dizon, R., Broadbent, H., & Fulghum, N. (2022, September 8). EU’s record solar summer helps avoid €29bn in gas imports. Ember. https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/record-solar-summer-in-euro…

Dassonneville, R., Feitosa, F. a. C., Hooghe, M., & Oser, J. (2021). Policy responsiveness to all citizens or only to voters? A longitudinal analysis of policy responsiveness in OECD countries. European Journal of Political Research, 60(3), 583–602. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.12417

De Bruycker, I. (2019). Democratically deficient, yet responsive? How politicization facilitates responsiveness in the European Union. Journal of European Public Policy, 27(6), 834–852. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2019.1622587

De Rosa, M., Gainsford, K., Pallonetto, F., & Finn, D. (2022). Diversification, concentration and renewability of the energy supply in the European Union. Energy, 253, 124097. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.124097

De Wilde, P. (2011). No Polity for Old Politics? A Framework for Analyzing the Politicization of European Integration. Journal of European Integration, 33(5), 559–575. https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2010.546849

De Wilde, P., Leupold, A., & Schmidtke, H. (2015). Introduction: the differentiated politicisation of European governance. West European Politics, 39(1), 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2015.1081505

De Wilde, P., & Rauh, C. (2019). Going full circle: the need for procedural perspectives on EU responsiveness. Journal of European Public Policy, 26(11), 1737–1748. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2019.1668043

Dekanozishvili, M. (2023). Dynamics of EU Renewable Energy Policy Integration. Palgrave Macmillan Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-20593-4

Directive 2001/77/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 September 2001 on the promotion of electricity produced from renewable energy sources in the internal electricity market. (1999). Official Journal of the European Union. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32001L0077

Directive 2003/30/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 May 2003 on the promotion of the use of biofuels or other renewable fuels for transport. (2003). Official Journal of the European Union. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=celex%3A32003L0030

Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC (Text with EEA relevance). (2009). Official Journal of the European Union. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=celex%3A32009L0028

Directive (EU) 2018/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2018 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources (recast) [CONSOLIDATED]. (2022). Official Journal of the European Union. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A02018L2001-…

Druckman, J. N. (2013). Stunted policy support. Nature Climate Change, 3(7), 617–617. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1939

Dupont, C., Oberthür, S., & Von Homeyer, I. (2020). The Covid-19 crisis: a critical juncture for EU climate policy development? Journal of European Integration, 42(8), 1095–1110. https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2020.1853117

Ember. (n.d.). Data Catalogue | Global Electricity. https://ember-climate.org/data/data-catalogue/

European Commission. (n.d.-a). A European Green Deal. Retrieved December 17, 2022, from https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/e…

European Commission. (n.d.-b). European Climate Law. Climate Action. Retrieved December 17, 2022, from https://climate.ec.europa.eu/eu-action/european-green-deal/european-cli…

European Commission. (1997). ENERGY FOR THE FUTURE: RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY: White Paper for a Community Strategy and Action Plan [COM(97)599]. https://europa.eu/documents/comm/white_papers/pdf/com97_599_en.pdf

European Commission. (2004, March 4). Kyoto Protocol. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/MEMO_04_43

European Commission. (2019). Special Eurobarometer 492: Europeans’ attitudes on EU energy policy [Dataset]. https://data.europa.eu/data/datasets/s2238_91_4_492_eng?locale=en

European Commission. (2021). Special Eurobarometer 513 : Climate Change [Dataset]. https://data.europa.eu/data/datasets/s2273_95_1_513_eng?locale=en

European Commission. (2022a, May 18). REPowerEU: affordable, secure and sustainable energy for Europe. https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/e…

European Commission. (2022b, May 22). REPowerEU: A plan to rapidly reduce dependence on Russian fossil fuels and fast forward the green transition. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_22_3131

European Commission. (2022c). Flash Eurobarometer FL514 [Dataset]. https://data.europa.eu/data/datasets/s2912_fl514_eng?locale=en

European Commission. (2023a). Standard Eurobarometer 98 - Winter 2022-2023 [Dataset]. https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2872

European Commission. (2023b, March 30). European Green Deal: EU agrees stronger legislation to accelerate the rollout of renewable energy. Press Corner. Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_23_2061

European Environment Agency [EEA]. (2012, November 29). National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) data from Member States. Retrieved July 13, 2023, from https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/figures/national-renewable-ener…

European Environment Agency [EEA]. (2013). Renewable electricity. https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/renewable-electricit…

European Environment Agency [EEA]. (2019). Sustainability transitions: policy and practice (No. 09/2009). https://doi.org/10.2800/641030

European Environment Agency [EEA]. (2020). Use of renewable energy for transport in Europe. https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/use-of-cleaner-and-a…

European Environment Agency [EEA]. (2021, October 26). EU achieves 20-20-20 climate targets, 55 % emissions cut by 2030 reachable with more efforts and policies. https://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/eu-achieves-20-20-20

European Environment Agency [EEA]. (2022, December 6). EEA Signals 2022 — Staying on course for a sustainable Europe. Retrieved December 12, 2022, from https://www.eea.europa.eu/signals/eea-signals-2022

European Social Survey European Research Infrastructure [ESS ERIC]. (2020). ESS8 - integrated file, edition 2.2 [Data set] [Dataset]. Sikt - Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research. https://doi.org/10.21338/ESS8E02_2

Eurostat. (n.d.). Release calendar. Retrieved August 4, 2023, from https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/news/release-calendar?start=1701385200000…

Eurostat. (2023a). General government gross debt - annual data [Dataset]. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/teina225/default/table

Eurostat. (2023b). Import dependency on third countries by fuel type [Dataset]. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/NRG_IND_ID3CF/default/ta…

Eurostat. (2023c). Investment share of GDP by institutional sectors [Dataset]. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/SDG_08_11/default/table?…

Eurostat. (2023d). Real GDP per capita [Dataset]. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/sdg_08_10/default/table

Eurostat. (2023e). Share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption by sector [Dataset]. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/SDG_07_40/default/table?…

Ferrara, F., & Kriesi, H. (2022). Crisis pressures and European integration. Journal of European Public Policy, 29(9), 1351–1373. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2021.1966079

Ferris, N. (2022, December 22). How green lobbyists helped drive unprecedented EU climate action in 2022. Energy Monitor. https://www.energymonitor.ai/finance/corporate-strategy/how-green-lobby…

Fisher, S. D., Kenny, J., Poortinga, W., Böhm, G., & Steg, L. (2022). The politicisation of climate change attitudes in Europe. Electoral Studies, 79, 102499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2022.102499

Follesdal, A., & Hix, S. (2006). Why There is a Democratic Deficit in the EU: A Response to Majone and Moravcsik. JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies, 44(3), 533–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5965.2006.00650.x

Fraune, C., & Knodt, M. (2018). Sustainable energy transformations in an age of populism, post-truth politics, and local resistance. Energy Research & Social Science, 43, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2018.05.029

Ghosh, D., & Vogt, A. (2012). Outliers: An Evaluation of Methodologies. Joint Statistical Meetings, 3455–3460. http://www.asasrms.org/Proceedings/y2012/Files/304068_72402.pdf

Godfrey, L. G. (1978). Testing for Higher Order Serial Correlation in Regression Equations when the Regressors Include Lagged Dependent Variables. Econometrica, 46(6), 1303. https://doi.org/10.2307/1913830

Gollata, J. A., & Newig, J. (2017). Policy implementation through multi-level governance: analysing practical implementation of EU air quality directives in Germany. Journal of European Public Policy, 24(9), 1308–1327. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2017.1314539

Grande, E., & Hutter, S. (2016). Introduction: European integration and the challenge of politicisation. In S. Hutter, E. Grande, & H. Kriesi (Eds.), Politicising Europe: Integration and Mass Politics (pp. 3–31). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316422991.002

Hackenesch, C., Bergmann, J., & Orbie, J. (2021). Development Policy under Fire? The Politicization of European External Relations*. JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies, 59(1), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcms.13145

Hagemann, S., Hobolt, S. B., & Wratil, C. (2016). Government Responsiveness in the European Union: Evidence From Council Voting. Comparative Political Studies, 50(6), 850–876. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414015621077

Hakhverdian, A. (2012). The Causal Flow between Public Opinion and Policy: Government Responsiveness, Leadership, or Counter Movement? West European Politics, 35(6), 1386–1406. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2012.713751

Hamid, I., Alam, M. S., Kanwal, A., Jena, P. K., Murshed, M., & Alam, R. (2022). Decarbonization pathways: the roles of foreign direct investments, governance, democracy, economic growth, and renewable energy transition. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29(33), 49816–49831. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-18935-3

Hollinger, P. (2022, December 14). Throwing more money at EU industry is not the answer to US green deal. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/197bbf2d-7d41-40dd-871c-f31ca4ff21d7

Hooghe, L., & Marks, G. (2003). Unraveling the Central State, but How? Types of Multi-level Governance. American Political Science Review, 97(02). https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055403000649

Hooghe, L., & Marks, G. (2009). A Postfunctionalist Theory of European Integration: From Permissive                     Consensus to Constraining Dissensus. British Journal of Political Science, 39(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0007123408000409

Hørman, M., Georgiev, I. G., Wessel, R., Jespersen, M. S., Lambert, J., Simpson, R., Klingl, S., Häusler, A., Muscio, A., & Vu, H. (2022). EU’s Global Leadership in Renewables: Final Synthesis Report : July 2021. Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2833/523799

Howes, T. (2010). The EU’s New Renewable Energy Directive (2009/28/EC). In S. Oberthur & M. Pallemaerts (Eds.), The New Climate Policies of the European Union: Internal Legislation and Climate Diplomacy (pp. 117–150). VUBPRESS. https://researchportal.vub.be/en/publications/the-new-climate-policies-…

Huber, R. A., Maltby, T., Szulecki, K., & Ćetković, S. (2021). Is populism a challenge to European energy and climate policy? Empirical evidence across varieties of populism. Journal of European Public Policy, 28(7), 998–1017. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2021.1918214

Hutter, S., & Grande, E. (2014). Politicizing Europe in the National Electoral Arena: A Comparative Analysis of Five West European Countries, 1970-2010. Journal of Common Market Studies, 52(5), 1002–1018. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcms.12133

Hutter, S., & Kriesi, H. (2019). Politicizing Europe in times of crisis. Journal of European Public Policy, 26(7), 996–1017. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2019.1619801

Hutter, S., & Kriesi, H. (2021). Politicising immigration in times of crisis. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 48(2), 341–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183x.2020.1853902

International Energy Agency [IEA]. (n.d.). Policy database – Data & Statistics. IEA. Retrieved July 16, 2023, from https://www.iea.org/policies

International Energy Agency [IEA]. (2022). Renewable power’s growth is being turbocharged as countries seek to strengthen energy security. https://www.iea.org/news/renewable-power-s-growth-is-being-turbocharged…

International Energy Agency [IEA]. (2023, May). Overview and key findings – World Energy Investment 2023. IEA. https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-investment-2023/overview-and-k…

International Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA]. (n.d.). Renewable energy capacity and electricity generation [Dataset]. In Statistics Time Series. https://www.irena.org/Data/View-data-by-topic/Capacity-and-Generation/S…

International Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA]. (2022, July 13). Renewable Power Remains Cost-Competitive amid Fossil Fuel Crisis. IRENA. https://www.irena.org/news/pressreleases/2022/Jul/Renewable-Power-Remai…

Jack, V. (2023, June 18). ‘Frustrated’ EU countries resolve renewables feud with concession for France. POLITICO. https://www.politico.eu/article/renewable-energy-directive-rediii-europ…

Jessop, B. (2004). Multi-level Governance and Multi-level Metagovernance: Changes in the European Union as Integral Moments in the Transformation and Reorientation of Contemporary Statehood. In I. Bache & M. Flinders (Eds.), Multi-level Governance (pp. 15–30). Oxford Academic. https://doi.org/10.1093/0199259259.003.0004

Johnston, M. P. (2017). Secondary Data Analysis: A Method of which the Time Has Come. Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Libraries, 3(3), 619–626. http://www.qqml.net/papers/September_2014_Issue/336QQML_Journal_2014_Jo…

Jones, D. (2023, January 31). European Electricity Review 2023. Ember. Retrieved February 1, 2023, from https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/european-electricity-review…

Keypour, J., & Ahmadzada, U. (2021). Consolidating EU energy security by relying on energy de-politicisation. European Security, 31(1), 135–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2021.1970538

Kiliçarslan, Z. (2019). The Relationship Between Foreign Direct Investment And Renewable Energy Production: Evidence From Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa And Turkey. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 9(4), 291–297. https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.7879

Koop, C., Reh, C., & Bressanelli, E. (2021). Agenda‐setting under pressure: Does domestic politics influence the European Commission? European Journal of Political Research, 61(1), 46–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.12438

Krahé, M., Sigl-Glöckner, P., & Steitz, J. (2023, April 26). Decarbonization requires new fiscal rules. Project Syndicate. Retrieved May 17, 2023, from https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/europe-fight-climate-chang…

Leuffen, D., Rittberger, B., & Schimmelfennig, F. (2022). Postfunctionalism. In Integration and Differentiation in the European Union (pp. 143–168). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76677-1_6

Marks, G., & Hooghe, L. (2004). Contrasting Visions of Multi-level Governance. In I. Bache & M. Flinders (Eds.), Multi-level Governance (pp. 15–30). Oxford Academic. https://doi.org/10.1093/0199259259.003.0002

Marler, R. T., & Arora, J. S. (2004). Survey of multi-objective optimization methods for engineering. Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization, 26(6), 369–395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00158-003-0368-6

McNabb, D. E. (2010). Research methods for political science: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches (2nd ed.). Routledge. http://www.lib.ysu.am/disciplines_bk/5011976daf5b5916794c6966cf0b02b3.p…

Meijers, M. J., Schneider, C. J., & Zhelyazkova, A. (2019). Dimensions of input responsiveness in the EU: actors, publics, venues. Journal of European Public Policy, 26(11), 1724–1736. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2019.1668045

Morales, L., Pilet, J., & Ruedin, D. (2015). The Gap between Public Preferences and Policies on Immigration: A Comparative Examination of the Effect of Politicisation on Policy Congruence. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 41(9), 1495–1516. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183x.2015.1021598

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD]. (n.d.). IEA Energy Policy Reviews. OECD iLibrary. Retrieved July 16, 2023, from https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/energy/iea-energy-policy-reviews_8550daed…

Palonen, K., Wiesner, C., Selk, V., Kauppi, N., Hans-Jörg-Trenz, Dupuy, C., Van Ingelgom, V., & Liste, P. (2019). Rethinking Politicisation. Contemporary Political Theory, 18(2), 248–281. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41296-019-00326-y

Plümper, T., Troeger, V. E., & Manow, P. (2005). Panel data analysis in comparative politics: Linking method to theory. European Journal of Political Research, 44(2), 327–354. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6765.2005.00230.x

Polman, D., Van Eerd, M. C., & Zwaan, P. (2022). Connecting the dots: a closer look at the linkage between EU implementation experiences and EU policy change. Journal of European Integration, 207–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2020.1814757

Qin, Y., & Al Amin, M. (n.d.). Panel Data Using R: Fixed-effects and Random-effects. Princeton University Library. Retrieved August 2, 2023, from https://libguides.princeton.edu/R-Panel

Randle, C., & Brownlow, S. (2023, January 17). Streamlining planning and permitting can accelerate wind and solar deployment. Energy Transitions Commission. https://www.energy-transitions.org/new-insights-briefing-planning-and-p…

Rauh, C. (2018). EU politicization and policy initiatives of the European Commission: the case of consumer policy. Journal of European Public Policy, 26(3), 344–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2018.1453528

Raworth, K. (2017). Doughnut Economics: Seven Ways to Think Like a 21st-Century Economist. Chelsea Green Publishing.

RDocumentation. (n.d.). acf: Auto- and Cross- Covariance and -Correlation Function Estimation. Retrieved August 6, 2023, from https://www.rdocumentation.org/packages/stats/versions/3.6.2/topics/acf

RES LEGAL Europe. (n.d.). Legal Sources on Renewable Energy: Search by country. RES LEGAL. Retrieved July 16, 2023, from http://www.res-legal.eu/search-by-country/

Revelle, W. (2023). Procedures for Psychological, Psychometric, and Personality Research [R package psych version 2.3.6]. https://cran.r-project.org/package=psych

Risse, T. (2014). European public spheres, the politicization of EU affairs, and its consequences. In T. Risse (Ed.), European Public Spheres: Politics Is Back (pp. 141–164). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139963343.009

Rogerson, P. A. (2001). Statistical Methods for Geography. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781849209953

Roth, A., Klessmann, C., & Niedergesäss, J. (2022, November 21). How COVID helped EU countries meet their renewable energy targets. Euractiv. https://www.euractiv.com/section/energy/opinion/how-covid-helped-eu-cou…

Saba, C. S., & Biyase, M. (2022). Determinants of renewable electricity development in Europe: Do Governance indicators and institutional quality matter? Energy Reports, 8, 13914–13938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.09.184

Scartascini, S., Cruz, C., & Keefer, P. (2021). The Database of Political Institutions 2020 (DPI2020) [Dataset]. https://doi.org/10.18235/0003049

Schaffer, L. M., Oehl, B., & Bernauer, T. (2022). Are policymakers responsive to public demand in climate politics? Journal of Public Policy, 42(1), 136–164. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0143814x21000088

Schimmelfennig, F. (2020). Politicisation management in the European Union. Journal of European Public Policy, 27(3), 342–361. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2020.1712458

Schmidt, V. A. (2019). Politicization in the EU: between national politics and EU political dynamics. Journal of European Public Policy, 26(7), 1018–1036. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2019.1619189

Segreto, M., Principe, L., Desormeaux, A., Torre, M., Gualtieri, A. F., Tratzi, P., Paolini, V., & Petracchini, F. (2020). Trends in Social Acceptance of Renewable Energy Across Europe—A Literature Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(24), 9161. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249161

Simon, F. (2022). Solar, wind industry worried about “daft” EU permitting rules. www.euractiv.com. https://www.euractiv.com/section/energy/news/solar-wind-industry-worrie…

Simon, F., Taylor, K., Kurmayer, N. J., & Romano, V. (2022, September 7). The Green Brief: EU energy crisis is becoming systemic. Euractiv. https://www.euractiv.com/section/energy-environment/news/the-green-brie…

Simon, F., Taylor, K., & Romano, V. (2022, June 8). The Green Brief: EU Parliament hit by “tsunami of lobbying.” Euractiv. Retrieved May 5, 2023, from https://www.euractiv.com/section/energy-environment/news/the-green-brie…

Steunenberg, B. (2019). Different shades of responsiveness: from adoption to implementation. Journal of European Public Policy, 26(11), 1749–1760. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2019.1668042

Strunz, S., Lehmann, P. V., & Gawel, E. (2021). Analyzing the ambitions of renewable energy policy in the EU and its Member States. Energy Policy, 156, 112447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112447

Sun, F. (2014). The dual political effects of foreign direct investment in developing countries. Journal of Developing Areas, 48(1), 107–125. https://doi.org/10.1353/jda.2014.0020

Taghizadeh-Hesary, F., & Yoshino, N. (2020). Sustainable solutions for green financing and investment in renewable energy projects. Energies, 13(4), 788. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13040788

Thomann, E. (2015). Customizing Europe: transposition as bottom-up implementation. Journal of European Public Policy, 22(10), 1368–1387. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2015.1008554

Thomann, E., & Zhelyazkova, A. (2017). Moving beyond (non-)compliance: the customization of European Union policies in 27 countries. Journal of European Public Policy, 24(9), 1269–1288. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2017.1314536

Toshkov, D. (2011). Public opinion and policy output in the European Union: A lost relationship. European Union Politics, 12(2), 169–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/1465116510395043

Voltolini, B., Natorski, M., & Hay, C. (2020). Introduction: the politicisation of permanent crisis in Europe. Journal of European Integration, 42(5), 609–624. https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2020.1792460

Von Homeyer, I., Oberthür, S., & Dupont, C. (2022). Implementing the European Green Deal during the Evolving Energy Crisis. JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies, 60(S1), 125–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcms.13397

Wildauer, R., Leitch, S., & Kapeller, J. (2021). IS A €10 TRILLION EUROPEAN CLIMATE INVESTMENT INITIATIVE FISCALLY SUSTAINABLE? Foundation for European Progressive Studies (FEPS). https://feps-europe.eu/wp-content/uploads/downloads/publications/211022…

Wlezien, C., & Soroka, S. (2021). Public Opinion and Public Policy. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.74

World Bank [WB]. (n.d.-a). World Development Indicators | DataBank. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators

World Bank [WB]. (n.d.-b). Worldwide Governance Indicators [Dataset]. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/worldwide-governance-indicators

Zeitlin, J., Nicoli, F., & Laffan, B. (2019). Introduction: the European Union beyond the polycrisis? Integration and politicization in an age of shifting cleavages. Journal of European Public Policy, 26(7), 963–976. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2019.1619803

Zhelyazkova, A., Bølstad, J., & Meijers, M. J. (2019). Understanding responsiveness in European Union politics: introducing the debate. Journal of European Public Policy, 26(11), 1715–1723. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2019.1668046

Zhelyazkova, A., Kaya, C., & Schrama, R. (2016). Decoupling practical and legal compliance: Analysis of member states’ implementation of EU policy. European Journal of Political Research, 55(4), 827–846. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.12154

Zhelyazkova, A., & Thomann, E. (2022). ‘I did it my way’: customisation and practical compliance with EU policies. Journal of European Public Policy, 29(3), 427–447. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2020.1859599

Zuleeg, F., Emmanouilidis, J. A., & Borges De Castro, R. (2021, November 23). Europe in the age of permacrisis. European Policy Centre. https://epc.eu/en/Publications/Europe-in-the-age-of-permacrisis%7E3c8a0c

Download scriptie (1.66 MB)
Universiteit of Hogeschool
KU Leuven
Thesis jaar
2023
Promotor(en)
Prof. Dr. Katja Biedenkopf