Recht als architectuur

Joanna
Wils

Hoe natuurrechten ruimte creëren voor gemeenschapsbestuur

Afbeelding met buitenshuis, plant, vegetatie, Forb</p>
<p>Automatisch gegenereerde beschrijving

Natuurrechten kunnen helpen om gemeenschapsbestuur over ecosystemen te organiseren, dat blijkt uit recent juridisch onderzoek naar het bestuursmodel van het Nieuw-Zeelandse bos Te Urewera. Door aan specifieke ecosystemen rechtspersoonlijkheid te geven, wordt ruimte gecreëerd voor bestuursvormen die ingaan tegen verstikkende principes uit het internationaal recht. Dat komt op zijn beurt duurzaam en eerlijk grondstoffenbeheer ten goede.

Een onzichtbare tragedie

In 1968 maakte microbioloog Garrett Hardin korte metten met zogenaamde commons. Hardin definieerde commons als vrij toegankelijke gebieden die door ongecoördineerd gebruik al snel uitgeput zouden geraken. Hij noemde het lot van de commons een tragedie, en pleitte daarom voor privatisering of opname in het overheidsdomein. Dat tragische idee heeft zich wijd verspreid, maar recent onderzoek wijst uit dat Hardins theorie niet strookt met de praktijk. 

“Groepsmanagement is vaak efficiënter dan overheidsbeheer”

Onderzoekers zoals Elinor Ostrom en Tine De Moor hebben aangetoond dat commons niet vrij toegankelijk hoeven te zijn. In tegendeel, historisch waren commons vaak afgebakende bossen en weides waar duidelijke gemeenschapsregels golden om uitputting te voorkomen. Historici en economen argumenteren dat zo’n gemeenschapsmanagement vaak zelfs efficiënter is dan overheidsbeheer. De grote afname in commons over de wereld zou niet veroorzaakt zijn door interne problemen, maar eerder door een groeiende tendens om gebieden in te sluiten in privaat of publiek eigendom.

Die tendens hangt samen met het feit dat commons geen duidelijke juridische vertaling hebben. Terwijl privaat en publiek eigendom sterke juridische concepten zijn, is gemeenschapsbeheer juridisch onzichtbaar. Daarom wordt er actief gezocht naar manieren om commons juridisch te omkaderen. Recent onderzoek analyseerde de mogelijkheden van natuurrechten.

Van park tot persoon

Het onderzoek baseerde zich op recente ontwikkelingen in Nieuw-Zeeland. Daar werd in 2014 een voormalig nationaal park Te Urewera omgevormd tot een eigen rechtspersoon. Dat betekent dat het bos voortaan naar de rechtbank kan stappen, maar ook dat het geen eigendom meer is van de staat. Het bos wordt vertegenwoordigd door een panel waarin voornamelijk leden van de lokale inheemse bevolking zetelen. Dat is een belangrijk element: de Te Urewera wet had de intentie om meer zeggenschap te geven aan de lokale Tūhoe gemeenschap.

Op die manier komt de wet dicht in de buurt van historische commons. Het onderzoek heeft dan ook bestudeerd in welke mate zo’n natuurrechtelijk kader kan helpen om gemeenschapsbestuur duurzaam te organiseren. Daarvoor heeft het eerst onderzocht of de constitutieve elementen van een commons aanwezig zijn in Te Urewera, en vervolgens of de wet aan de acht ontwerpprincipes van Elinor Ostrom voldoet.

Blijvende controledrang 

De constitutieve elementen van een commons hebben betrekking op het gebied, de gemeenschap en de interactie tussen beide. Voor Te Urewera gaat het om het bos, de inheemse Tūhoe bevolking en het bestuur dat noch in private, noch in publieke handen ligt. Uit die eerste analyse bleek dat de overheid van Nieuw-Zeeland op verschillende manieren heel betrokken blijft, bijvoorbeeld in besluitvormingsprocedures. Dat wijkt af van traditionele commons.

De ontwerpprincipes van Elinor Ostrom vormen een indicatie voor de slaagkans van de bestuursvorm op lange termijn. Ze gaan onder meer over collectieve besluitvorming, sanctiemechanismen en externe erkenning. Hoewel aan verschillende principes voldaan was, zorgde blijvende betrokkenheid van de overheid in Te Urewera weer voor veel afwijkingen.

Internationale invloed

Het werd dan ook duidelijk dat de Te Urewera wet geen klassieke commons heeft geïnstalleerd. Om te beoordelen of het natuurrechtelijk kader desondanks heeft geholpen om het bestuursmodel dichter bij een gemeenschapslogica te brengen, probeerde het onderzoeksproject te achterhalen wat die voortdurende overheidsbetrokkenheid kon verklaren.

Daarvoor heeft het onderzoek gekeken naar het internationale juridische kader. Jurist Samuel Cogolati schreef enkele jaren geleden namelijk al dat verschillende fundamentele principes in het internationaal recht zich verzetten tegen commons. Het gaat dan om een visie die de natuur ziet als een onuitputtelijke bron van grondstoffen en die een staat vooropstelt als ultieme bestuursvorm.

            “Natuurrechten kunnen helpen de verbondenheid tussen mens en natuur te bevorderen”

Toch is er de laatste decennia steeds meer aandacht voor planetaire grenzen en duurzaamheid. Zitten die principes dan nog steeds ingebakken in het internationaal recht? Ja hoor, zo blijkt uit het onderzoek. Hoewel het internationaal milieurecht zich als een aparte tak heeft ontwikkeld, zorgt de fragmentatie van het internationaal recht ervoor dat er geen fundamentele wijzigingen zijn gebeurd in het bredere internationaal recht. 

Bovendien gaat internationaal milieurecht grotendeels uit van top-down staatsbestuur. Ondanks verschillende bottom-up initiatieven, creëert het internationaal recht een architecturaal kader dat commons tegenwerkt. 

Natuurrechten als oases

De bestuursstructuur van Te Urewera illustreert dat natuurrechten in die context waardevol kunnen zijn voor commons. Door een ecosysteem rechtspersoonlijkheid te geven, wordt er ruimte gecreëerd om een lokale bestuursstructuur uit te werken. Dat staat toe om oplossingen te creëren op maat van de specifieke draagkracht van een ecosysteem en om verbondenheid tussen mens en natuur te bevorderen. 

Op die manier creëren natuurrechten oases waarin de invloed van internationaalrechtelijke principes wordt afgezwakt. De Te Urewera wet toont dat natuurrechten ook risico’s meebrengen voor commons, maar veel van die risico’s hangen samen met de sterke positie van de overheid, die voorlopig onveranderlijk blijft.

Kruisbestuivend denken

Zo illustreert de situatie in Te Urewera dat natuurrechten geen garantie vormen voor perfect gemeenschapsbestuur, maar dat ze desondanks ruimte kunnen creëren waarin de verstikkende invloed van het internationaal recht wordt geneutraliseerd. Ook initiatieven die niet perfect zijn, helpen zo om heersende principes in vraag te stellen. 

Hoog tijd dus dat belangenbehartigingsbewegingen en onderzoekers natuurrechten en commons vaker gezamenlijk bestuderen. De concepten hebben elkaar heel wat te bieden, zeker in het licht van het internationaal recht.

Afbeelding met wolk, natuur, buitenshuis, hooglanden</p>
<p>Automatisch gegenereerde beschrijving

 

Bibliografie

1. Legislative documents

1.1 Laws and regulations of New Zealand

Constitution Act, 30 June 1852.

Urewera District Native Reserve Act, 12 October 1896.

Native Plants Protection Act, 23 October 1934.

Treaty of Waitangi Act, 10 October 1975.

Constitution Act, 13 December 1986.

Te Urewera Act, 26 July 2014.

Tūhoe Claims Settlement Act, 27 July 2014.

Te Kawa o Te Urewera, 2017, 66 p, consultable via https://www.ngaituhoe.iwi.nz/te-kawa-o-
te-urewera (consulted for the last time on May 23rd 2024).

 

1.2 International legal documents


Charter of the United Nations, 24 October 1945.

Statute of the International Court of Justice, 18 April 1946.

A/RES/1803 (XVII): General Assembly resolution on Permanent sovereignty over natural
resources, 14 December 1962.

Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment in A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1: Report of the
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, 16 June 1972.

A/RES/3201 (S-VI): General Assembly resolution on the Declaration on the Establishment of
a New International Economic Order, 1 May 1974.

A/RES/3281 (XXIX): General Assembly resolution on the Charter of Economic Rights and
Duties of States, 12 December 1974.

Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, ILO C169, 27 June 1989.

Rio Declaration on Environment and Development in A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. 1): Report of the
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 12 August 1992.

A/CN.4/L.702: Report of the Study Group of the International Law Commission on the
Fragmentation of International Law: difficulties arising from the diversification and
expansion of international law, 18 July 2006.

A/RES/61/295: General Assembly resolution on the United Nations Declaration on the Rights
of Indigenous Peoples, 13 September 2007.

A/RES/63/278: General Assembly resolution on International Mother Earth Day, 1 May 2009.

A/RES/66/288: General Assembly resolution on The future we want, 27 July 2012.

A/RES/70/208, General Assembly resolution on Harmony with Nature, 22 December 2015.

A/71/266: Note by the Secretary-General on Harmony with Nature, 1 August 2016.

A/HRC/41/54: Global extractivism and racial equality: Report of the Special Rapporteur on
contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, 14
May 2019.

A/74/236: Report of the Secretary-General on Harmony with Nature, 26 July 2019.

Request for an advisory opinion on the Climate Emergency and Human Rights submitted to
the Inter-American Court of Human Rights by the Republic of Colombia and the Republic of
Chile, 9 January 2023.

A/RES/77/276: General Assembly resolution of Request for an advisory opinion of the
International Court of Justice on the obligations of States in respect of climate change, 29
March 2023.


1.3 Other legislation


Wilderness Act (US Wilderness Act), No. 1131-1136, 3 September 1964.

Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador, 20 October 2008.

Ley de Derechos de la Madre Tierra (Bolivian Mother Earth Rights Law), No. 071, 21
December 2010.

Ley Marco de la Madre Tierra y Desarrollo Integral para Vivir Bien (Bolivian Mother Earth
Framework Law), No. 300, 15 October 2012.

Ley para el reconocimiento de personalidad jurídica a la laguna del Mar Menor y su cuenca
(Spanish law for the recognition of legal personality to the Mar Menor lagoon and its basin),
No. 19/2022, 30 September 2022. 


2. Decisions of courts


2.1 Courts and tribunals of New Zealand


New Zealand High Court Rotorua Registry, Tuna v. Te Urewera Board, 3680, 14 December
2023.

Waitangi Tribunal, Te Urewera Reports, 894, 2017, Vol. 1-8.

 

2.2 International courts


ICJ, Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v.
Uganda), judgment, 19 December 2005.

IACtHR, Advisory Opinion on the Environment and Human Rights, OC-23/17, 15 November
2017.

IACtHR, Comunidades Indígenas Miembros de la Asociación Lhaka Honhat (Nuestra Tierra)
v. Argentina, 6 February 2020.

ITLOS, Advisory opinion on climate change and international law, No. 31, 21 May 2024.


3. Academic literature


3.1 Books & dissertations


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DE MOOR, T., The dilemma of the commoners: understanding the use of common-pool resources in long-term perspective, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2015, 204 p.

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FUKURAI, H. and KROOTH, R., Original Nation Approaches to Inter-National Law: The Quest for the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and Nature in the Age of Anthropocene, London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2021, 387 p.

HILPOLD, P., European International Law Traditions, Cham, Springer, 2021, 337 p.

JENNINGS, R. Y., The Acquisition of Territory in International Law, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1963, 130 p.

JONES, C., NEW TREATY, NEW TRADITION: reconciling New Zealand and Māori Law, Toronto, UBCPress, 2016, 232 p.

KAUFFMAN, C. M. and MARTIN, P., The Politics of Rights of Nature, Strategies for building a more sustainable future, Cambridge, MIT Press, 2021, 213 p.

KELLY, M., Owning Our Future. The Emerging Ownership Revolution, Oakland, Berrett-Koehler, 2012, 264 p. 

MENSI, A., Indigenous Peoples, Natural Resources and Permanent Sovereignty, Boston, BRILL, 2023, 347 p.

MILLER, R. J., RURU, J., BEHRENDT, L. and LINDBERG, T., Discovering Indigenous Lands: The Doctrine of Discovery in the English Colonies, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2010, 267 p.

MILUN, K., The Political Uncommons: The Cross-Cultural Logic of the Global Commons, Surrey, Ashgate, 2011, 231 p.

NATARAJAN, U. and DEHM, J. (eds.), Locating Nature: Making and Unmaking International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2022, 392 p.

OSTROM, E., Understanding Institutional Diversity, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2009, 376 p.

OSTROM, E., Governing the commons, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2015, 280 p.

RICOVERI, G., Nature for Sale: The Commons versus Commodities, London, Pluto Press, 2013, 144 p.

TĂNĂSESCU, M., Understanding the Rights of Nature: A Critical Introduction, Bielefeld, transcript Verlag, 2022, 168 p.

TZOUVALA, N., Capitalism as civilisation: a history of international law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2020, 261 p.

WESTON, B. and BOLLIER, D., Green Governance: Ecological Survival, Human Rights, and the Law of the Commons, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013, 363 p.


3.2 Book chapters


BIRRELL, K., "Narrating Nature Climate Imaginaries in International Law" in NATARAJAN, U. and DEHM, J. (eds.), Locating Nature: Making and Unmaking International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2022, 332-353.

COGOLATI, S. and WOUTERS, J., "International law to save the commons" in COGOLATI, S. and WOUTERS, J. (eds), The Commons and a New Global Governance, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 2019, 266-290.

COGOLATI, S. and WOUTERS, J., "Commons, Global (Economic) Governance, and Democracy: Which Way Forward for International Law?" in IOVANE, M., PALOMBINO, F., AMOROSO, D. and ZARRA, G., The Protection of General Interests in Contemporary International Law: A Theoretical and Empirical Inquiry, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2021, 68-88

CULLINAN, C., "Earth Jurisprudence" in RAJAMANAI, L. and PEEL, J. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of International Environmental law (2nd ed.), Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2021, 233-248.

DE SCHUTTER, O., ‘From Eroding to Enabling the Commons: The Dual Movement in International Law’ in COGOLATI, S. and WOUTERS, J. (eds), The Commons and a New Global Governance, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 2019, 231- 265.

DEHM, J., "Reconfiguring Environmental Governance in the Green Economy Extraction, Stewardship and Natural Capital" in NATARAJAN, U. and DEHM, J. (eds.), Locating Nature: Making and Unmaking International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2022, 70-108.

GILBERT J., MACPHERSON, E., JONES, E., and DEHM, J., "The Rights of Nature as a Legal Response to the Global Environmental Crisis? A Critical Review of International Law’s ‘Greening’ Agenda" in DAM-DE JONG, D. and AMTENBRINK, F. (eds.), Netherlands Yearbook of International Law 2021: A Greener International Law—International Legal Responses to the Global Environmental Crisis, Den Haag, Springer, 2023, 47-74.

HOBE, S., "Evolution of the Principle on Permanent Sovereignty Over Natural Resources. From Soft Law to a Customary Law Principle?" in BUNGENBERG, M. and HOBE, S. (eds.), Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources, Cham, Springer International Publishing, 2015, 1-14.

JACKSON, J. H., "Sovereignty: Outdated Concept or New Approaches" in SHAN, W., SIMONS, P. and SINGH, D., Redefining Sovereignty in International Economic Law, London, Bloomsbury publishing, 2008, 3-25.

JAMIESON, D. W., "The Rights of Nature: Philosophical Challenges and Pragmatic Opportunities" in RODRÍGUEZ-GARAVITO, C. (ed.), MORE THAN HUMAN RIGHTS An Ecology of Law, Thought and Narrative for Earthly Flourishing, New York City, New York University, 2024, 95-110.

KAUFFMAN, C. M., "Global Patterns and Trends in Rights of Nature Legal Provisions: Insights from the Eco Jurisprudence Monitor" in RODRÍGUEZ-GARAVITO, C. (ed.), MORE THAN HUMAN RIGHTS An Ecology of Law, Thought and Narrative for Earthly Flourishing, New York City, New York University, 2024, 183-209.

KHODAY, K., "The Mythic Environment Ecocosmology and Narrative Remakings of Environmental Consciousness" in NATARAJAN, U. and DEHM, J. (eds.), Locating Nature: Making and Unmaking International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2022, 284-306.

MACFARLANE, R., "Journey to the Cedar Wood" in RODRÍGUEZ-GARAVITO, C. (ed.), MORE THAN HUMAN RIGHTS An Ecology of Law, Thought and Narrative for Earthly Flourishing, New York City, New York University, 2024, 127-144.

MARAUHN, T., "The state" in RAJAMANAI, L. and PEEL, J. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of International Environmental law (2nd ed.), Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2021, 613-631.

MATTEI, U., "First Thoughts for a Phenomenology of the Commons" in D. BOLLIER and S. HELFRICH (eds.), The Wealth of the Commons: A World Beyond Market & State, Amherst, Levellers Press, 2012, 37-44.

MATTEI, U. "The ecology of international law: towards an international legal system in tune with nature and community?" in S. COGOLATI and J. WOUTERS (eds.), The Commons and a New Global Governance, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 2019, 212-230. 

MAYRAND, H., "From Classical Liberalism to Neoliberalism Explaining the Contradictions in the International Environmental Law Project" in NATARAJAN, U. and DEHM, J. (eds.), Locating Nature: Making and Unmaking International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 202245-69.

MERINO, R., "Law and Politics of the Human/Nature: Exploring the Foundations and Institutions of the ‘Rights of Nature’" in NATARAJAN, U. and DEHM, J. (eds.), Locating Nature: Making and Unmaking International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2022307-331.

MICKELSON, K., "The Maps of International Law: Perceptions of Nature in the Classification of Territory beyond the State" in NATARAJAN, U. and DEHM, J. (eds.), Locating Nature: Making and Unmaking International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2022, 159-178.

NATARAJAN, U., "Who Do We Think We Are? Human Rights in a Time of Ecological Change" in NATARAJAN, U. and DEHM, J. (eds.), Locating Nature: Making and Unmaking International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2022, 200-228.

NATARAJAN, U. and DEHM, J., "Introduction: Where Is the Environment? Locating Nature in International Law" in NATARAJAN, U. and DEHM, J. (eds.), Locating Nature: Making and Unmaking International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2022, 1-18.

NATARAJAN, U. and DEHM, J., "Conclusion: remaking International law" in NATARAJAN, U. and DEHM, J. (eds.), Locating Nature: Making and Unmaking International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2022, 375-378.

NATARAJAN, U. and KHODAY, K., "Locating Nature: Making and Unmaking International Law" in NATARAJAN, U. and DEHM, J. (eds.), Locating Nature: Making and Unmaking International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press2022,21-44.

PETROVA, D. and FERRANDO, T. "Three Enclosures of International Law: Commoning Premises, Processes and Aims" in NATARAJAN, U. and DEHM, J. (eds.), Locating Nature: Making and Unmaking International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2022255-283.

PORRAS, I., "Appropriating Nature: Commerce, Property and the Commodification of Nature in the Law of Nations" in NATARAJAN, U. and DEHM, J. (eds.), Locating Nature: Making and Unmaking International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2022, 111-133.

RODRÍGUEZ-GARAVITO, C., "More-Than-Human Rights: Law, Science, and Storytelling Beyond Anthropocentrism" in RODRÍGUEZ-GARAVITO, C. (ed.), MORE THAN HUMAN RIGHTS An Ecology of Law, Thought and Narrative for Earthly Flourishing, New York City, New York University, 2024, 21-47.

RURU, J., "Indigenous peoples" in RAJAMANAI, L. and PEEL, J. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of International Environmental law (2nd ed.), Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2021, 733-748.

SCHRIJVER, N. J., "Fifty Years Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources. The 1962 UN Declaration as the Opinio Iuris Communis" in BUNGENBERG, M. and HOBE, S. (eds.), Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources, Cham, Springer International Publishing, 2015, 15-28.

SHIVA, V., 'Foreword. The Commons: The Ground of Democracy and Sustenance’ inRICOVERI, G., Nature for Sale: The Commons versus Commodities, London, Pluto Press, 2013, vii-xii.

STORR, C., "Denaturalising the Concept of Territory in International Law" in NATARAJAN, U. and DEHM, J. (eds.), Locating Nature: Making and Unmaking International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2022, 179-199.

SUNKIN, M. and PAYNE, S., "The Nature of the Crown: An Overview" in SUNKIN, M. and PAYNE, S. (eds.), The Nature of the Crown: A Legal and Political Analysis, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999, 1-21.


3.3 Articles


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ALBERS, E., and WILS, J., "Rights of Nature in the constitution: for the sake of nature, the people, or the state?", Annales de droit de Louvain 2023, Vol. 85, No. 1, 77-96.

AMERASINGHE, C. F., "The Historical Development of International Law - Universal Aspects", Archiv des Völkerrechts 2001, Vol. 39, No. 4, 367-393.

ANGHIE, A. T., "The Evolution of International Law: colonial and postcolonial realities", Third World Quarterly 2006, Vol. 27, No. 5, 739-753.

BOAST, R. P., “Recognising Multi-Textualism: Rethinking New Zealand's Legal History”, Victoria University of Wellington Law Review 2006, Vol. 37, 547-582.

BOAST, R. P., “The Lost Jurisprudence of the Native Land Court: The Liberal Era 1891-1912”, New Zealand journal of public and international law 2014, Vol. 12, 81-102.

BOAST, R. P., “The native land court at Cambridge, Māori land alienation and the private sector”, Waikato law review 2017, Vol. 25, 26-40.

BOAST, R. P., "Re-Thinking Individualism: Māori Land Development Policy and the Law in the Age of Ngata (1920-1940) ", Canterbury Law Review 2019, Vol. 25, 1-52.

BOYD, D. R., “Recognizing the Rights of Nature: Lofty Rhetoric or Legal Revolution”, Natural Resources & Environment 2018, Vol. 32, No. 4, 13-17.

BURDON, P., “The Jurisprudence of Thomas Berry”, Worldviews: Global Religions, Culture, and Ecology 2011, Vol. 15, 151-167.

COATES, N. "The Recognition of Tikanga in the Common Law of New Zealand", New Zealand Law Review 2015, Vol. 1, 1-34.

COOMBES, B., "Nature’s rights as Indigenous rights? Mis/recognition through personhood for Te Urewera", Espace populations sociétés 2020, Vol. 1-2, 1-17.

COX, S., "No tragedy of the commons", Environmental Ethics 1985, Vol. 7, 49-61.

CRONON, W., "The Trouble with Wilderness: Or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature", Environmental History 1996, Vol 1., No. 1, 7-28.

DE LUCIA, V., "Beyond anthropocentrism and ecocentrism: a biopolitical reading of environmental law", Journal of Human Rights and the Environment 2017, Vol. 8, No. 2, 181-202.

DE MOOR, T., “From common pastures to global commons: a historical perspective on interdisciplinary approaches to commons”, Natures sciences sociétés 2011, Vol. 19, 422-431.

DENEVAN, W. M., "The Pristine Myth: The Landscape of the Americas in 1492" in Annals of the Association of American Geographers 1992, Vol. 82, No. 3, 369-385.

FISCHER, H. W., CHHATRE, A., DUDDU, A., PRADHAN, N. and AGRAWAL, A., "Community forest governance and synergies among carbon, biodiversity and livelihoods", Nature Climate Change 2023, Vol. 13, 1340-1347, via https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-023-01863-6&nbsp;(consulted for the last time on May 23rd 2024).

FITZ-HENRY, E., “Conjuring the Past: Slow Violence and the Temporalities of Environmental Rights Tribunals”, Geoforum 2020, 259-266.

FOSTER, J.W., "The evolution of international law", The Yale law journal 1909, Vol. 18, No. 3, 149-164.

FRANKS, S. “The Trees Speak for Themselves: Nature’s Rights under International Law”, Michigan Journal of International Law 2021, 633-658.

GÓMEZ-POMPA, A. and KAUS, A., "Taming the Wilderness Myth" in BioScience 1992, 271-279.

HARDIN, G., “The tragedy of the Commons”, Science 1968, 1243-1248.

JEFFERSON, D. J., MACPHERSON, E. and STEVEN, M. "Experiments with the Extension of Legal Personality to Ecosystems and Beyond-Human Organisms: Challenges and Opportunities for Company Law" in Transnational Environmental Law 2023, 343-365.

KAUFFMAN, C. M., "Managing People for the Benefit of the Land: Practicing Earth Jurisprudence in Te Urewera, New Zealand", ISLE 2020, Vol. 27, 578-595. 

KAUFFMAN, C. M. and MARTIN, P, "Can Rights of Nature Make Development More Sustainable? Why Some Ecuadorian lawsuits Succeed and Others Fail", World Development 2017, Vol. 92, 130-142.

LORIMER, J., ‘La Doctrine de la Reconnaissance, Fondement du Droit International’ Revue de Droit International et de Législation Comparée 1884, 333-359.

LUND, C., "Rule and Rupture: State Formation through the Production of Property and Citizenship", Development and Change 2016, Vol. 47, No. 6, 1199-1228.

MALONEY, M., “Building an Alternative Jurisprudence for the Earth: The International Rights of Nature Tribunal”, Vermont Law Review 2016, 129-142.

MARDIKIAN, L., "The right to a healthy environment before the inter-american court of human rights", International and Comparative Law Quarterly 2023, Vol. 72, 945-975.

MARELLA, M. R., "The Commons as a Legal Concept", Law and Critique 2017, 61-86.

MATTEI, U. and QUARTA, A., "Principles of Legal Commoning", Revue juridique de l’environnement 2017, Vol. 49, No. 1, 67-81. 

MCKAY, A., "The Wilderness Myth", Nature Ecology & Evolution 2022, Vol. 6, 21.

MÉGRET, F., "L’étatisme spécifique du droit international", Revue québécoise de droit international 2020, Vol. 4, No. 1, 105-129.

NYS, E., "L'Etat et la Notion de L'Etat - Apercu Historique.", Revue de Droit International et de Legislation Comparée 1901, Vol. 3, No. 2, 418-4236.

O’MALLEY, V., “Tūhoe-Crown Settlement – historical background”, Māori Law Review 2014, via https://maorilawreview.co.nz/2014/10/tuhoe-crown-settlement-historical-background/ .

PAHUJA, S., "Laws of encounter: a jurisdictional account of international law", London Review of International Law 2013, Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-98.

PEEL, J., "Unlocking UNCLOS. How the ITLOS Advisory Opinion Delivers a Holistic Vision of Climate-relevant International Law", Verfassungsblog 2024, via https://verfassungsblog.de/unlocking-unclos/?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTAAAR1_15rwe076U1gIJIKVGoAi2brYbNx-HJvRxmccJLzCLOeK3f9voca0PaY_aem_AY-sKBWIGGpFXI62oMJXQ62SeJNQvrV_0bl0JXL9UUvaV8aOh331eeaZXk69-c3kfzR5Cfq6RM88Qot_Aq5u6Fsl (consulted for the last time on May 24th 2024).

PETEL, M., "The Illusion of Harmony: Power, Politics, and Distributive Implications of Rights of Nature", Transnational Environmental Law 2024, 1-23.

PUTZER, A., LAMBOOY, T., JEURISSEN, R. and KIM, E., “Putting the rights of nature on the map. A quantitative analysis of rights of nature initiatives across the world”, Journal of maps 2022, 1-8.

RANGANATHAN, S, "Global commons", The European Journal of International Law 2016, Vol. 27, No. 3, 693-717.

ROWSE, T., "Book review of New treaty, new tradition: reconciling New Zealand and Māori Law", Journal of New Zealand Studies 2017, No. 25, 115-116.

RURU, J., "Tūhoe-Crown settlement – Te Urewera Act 2014", Māori Law Review 2014, via https://maorilawreview.co.nz/2014/10/tuhoe-crown-settlement-te-urewera-act-2014/#:~:text=Te%20Urewera%20Act%20makes%20clear,Act%2C%20see%20s%2013). 

RURU, J., "First laws: Tikanga Māori in/and the law", Victoria University of Wellington law review 2018, Vol. 49, 211-228.

SCOTT, D. N., "EXTRACTIVISM: Socio-legal Approaches to Relations with Lands and Resources", Articles & Book Chapters 2020, No. 2811, 1-6.

SENA, R., "The intersection of human rights and climate change in the inter-american human rights system: what to hope for?", Wisconsin International Law Journal 2021, Vol. 38, No. 2, 331-368.

SHRINKHAL, R., ""Indigenous sovereignty" and right to self-determination in international law: a critical appraisal", AlterNative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples 2021, Vol. 17, No. 1, 71-82.

SHULTIS, J., "Social and ecological manifestations in the development of the Wilderness Area concept in New Zealand", The International Journal of Wilderness 1997, Vol. 3, No. 3, 12-16.

STONE, C., "Should trees have standing? - Towards Legal Rights for Natural Objects", Southern California Law Review 1972, Vol. 45, 450-501.

TAONUI, R., "Tribal organisation - The significance of iwi and hapū", Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand 2005, via https://teara.govt.nz/en/tribal-organisation/page-1 (consulted for the last time on May 23rd 2024).

TIGRE, M. A., "Inter-American Court of Human Rights Recognizes the Right to a Healthy Environment", American Society of International Law 2020, Vol. 24, No. 14, via https://www.asil.org/insights/volume/24/issue/14/inter-american-court-human-rights-recognizes-right-healthy-environment .

VOIGT, C., "ITLOS and the importance of (getting) external rules (right) in interpreting UNCLOS", Verfassungsblog 2024, via https://verfassungsblog.de/itlos-and-the-importance-of-getting-external-rules-right-in-interpreting-unclos/?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTAAAR2fmnowpkijQWV5756HJHPUQ7mHzUU1hrp9w2HhlY4vjYfwOLY8YsbY5IE_aem_AT5zAsNiaXbZ-6Kaxuu3P05xg2TAdjY5nbI2TkTKNeIpeCpLy791189rYGKcIevF1KQS5z0sZa3-R75SgDEJP4JJ (consulted for the last time on 1 June 2024).

WOOLFORD ROA, B., "The long dark cloud of racial inequality and historiographical omissions: the New Zealand Native Land Court", MAI Journal: A New Zealand Journal of Indigenous Scholarship 2012, Vol. 1, 3-14.


4. Other sources


4.1 Reports of international agencies


FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANISATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS, Forty Years of Community-Based Forestry: A review of its extent and effectiveness, 2016, FAO Forestry Paper No. 176, via https://www.cbd.int/financial/doc/fao-communityforestry2016.pdf.


4.2 Informative websites 


Te Aka Māori Dictionary, via https://www.maoridictionary.co.nz/ (consulted for the last time on June 8th 2024).

The Blueprint for The New Generation Tūhoe Authority of 2011, via https://issuu.com/teurutaumatua/docs/the_blue_print_-_new_generation_tuh (consulted for the last time on May 24th 2024).

An overview of the Deed of Settlement of 4 June 2013 on the official website of the Office for Māori Crown relations, via https://www.garn.org and https://www.tearawhiti.govt.nz/te-kahui-whakatau-treaty-settlements/find-a-treaty-settlement/ngai-tuhoe/#Ngai_Tuhoe_DOS_DOC (consulted for the last time on May 24th 2024).

Information on the Global Alliance for the Rights of Nature and RoN worldwide on the official website of the Global Alliance for the Rights of Nature, via https://www.garn.org/rights-of-nature-map/ (consulted for the last time on May 23rd 2024).

An overview of UN reports and resolutions on Harmony with Nature on the official website of UN Harmony with Nature, via http://www.harmonywithnatureun.org/unDocs/ (consulted for the last time on May 24th 2024).

A list of countries that ratified the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, via https://normlex.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:11300:0::NO::P11300_INSTRUMENT_ID:312314 (consulted for the last time on May 24th 2024).

Information on the Rights of Nature Tribunal on their official website, via https://www.rightsofnaturetribunal.org/about-us.

Information on the self-governance and independence of New Zealand on the website of Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, via https://teara.govt.nz/en/self-government-and-independence.

Information on Te Urewera on the official website of Tūhoe, via https://www.ngaituhoe.iwi.nz/te-urewera (consulted for the last time on May 24th 2024).

Information on Te Urewera Board on the official website of Tūhoe, via https://www.ngaituhoe.iwi.nz/meet-the-te-urewera-board (consulted for the last time on May 23rd 2024).

Information on Te Uru Taumatua on the official website of Tūhoe, via https://www.ngaituhoe.iwi.nz/tuthttps://www.ngaituhoe.iwi.nz/governance and https://www.ngaituhoe.iwi.nz/2023-appointment-process (consulted for the last time on May 23rd 2024).

The Universal Declaration of Rights of Mother Earth as adopted by the World People's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth on 22 April 2010, on the official website of the International Rights of Nature Tribunal via https://www.rightsofnaturetribunal.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/ENG-Universal-Declaration-of-the-Rights-of-Mother-Earth.pdf.

Official website of the Waitangi Tribunal, via https://www.waitangitribunal.govt.nz/ (consulted for the last time on May 24th 2024). An overview of the tribunal reports can be accessed via https://www.waitangitribunal.govt.nz/tribunal-reports/by-district/#UreweraThumb (consulted for the last time on June 2nd 2024).


4.3 Written journalistic coverage


BERGLUND, N, "State snubs Sami again, protests loom", NewsInEnlish.no 2023, via https://www.newsinenglish.no/2023/05/01/state-snubs-sami-again-protests-loom/ (consulted for the last time on May 23rd 2024).

CASSIDY, E., "How Nepal Regenerates Its Forests", NASA earth observatory 2023, via https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/150937/how-nepal-regenerated-its-forests (consulted for the last time on May 23rd 2024).

DEEP SINGH, K., and SHARMA, B., "How Nepal Grew Back Its Forests", The New York Times 2022, via https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/11/world/asia/nepal-reforestration-climate.html (consulted for the last time on May 23rd 2024). 

FARTHING, L., "Fewer wildfires, great biodiversity: what is the secret to the success of Mexico’s forests?", The Guardian 2024, via https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2024/may/01/fewer-wildfires-great-biodiversity-what-is-the-secret-to-the-success-of-mexicos-forests (consulted for the last time on May 23rd 2024).

FRIEDMAN, L, "Biden Administration Expected to Move Ahead on a Major Oil Project in Alaska", The New York Times 2023, via https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/10/climate/biden-willow-oil-alaska.html (consulted for the last time on May 23rd 2024).

JONES, C., "Tūhoe hapū continue to ask for tribal leadership resignation", Stuff 2021, via https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/local-democracy-reporting/300305806/thoe-hap-continue-to-ask-for-tribal-leadership-resignation (consulted for the last time on May 24th 2024).

SAX, S., "Scramble for clean energy metals confronted by activist calls to respect Indigenous rights", Mongabay 2023, via https://news.mongabay.com/2023/04/scramble-for-clean-energy-minerals-confronted-by-calls-to-respect-indigenous-rights/ (consulted for the last time on May 23rd 2024).

SCOTT, K., "A new ruling says countries – including NZ – must take action on climate change under the law of the sea", The Conversation 2024, via https://theconversation.com/a-new-ruling-says-countries-including-nz-must-take-action-on-climate-change-under-the-law-of-the-sea-230420?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTAAAR0ih4_PdN1l2mxJyNX-peHwgGQDxYfdELC-oJT9eEzQtlGZyZQM63AqQLg_aem_AY_xrVJKj1ut_SdvQt-cDkA7mWJMzbJcD-oymdv7pl2U1rFyBgliVSYuKbCg9inanZ8D-NCVnYz9L8MnPWWhhVBi (consulted for the last time on May 24th 2024).

WALL, T., "Pest control efforts in Te Urewera have changed - some conservationists worry about the fate of native species", Stuff 2022, via https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/300535889/pest-control-efforts-in-te-urewera-have-changed--some-conservationists-worry-about-the-fate-of-native-species (consulted for the last time on May 23rd 2024).

WHAITIRI, D., "Local Focus: More kaumātua protests against Te Uru Taumatua", The New Zealand Herald 2021, via https://www.nzherald.co.nz/kahu/local-focus-more-kaumatua-protests-against-te-uru-taumatua/FCIUKQ7SRX7P33WUYTTFHXP6ME/ (consulted for the last time on May 24th 2024).

X., "Unlawful: High Court condemns destruction of Te Urewera huts", The New Zealand Herald 2023, via https://www.nzherald.co.nz/kahu/unlawful-high-court-condemns-destruction-of-te-urewera-huts/TMNJ3TYQQBE5FO4DIUXIJQXYTM/ (consulted for the last time on May 24th 2024).

 

4.4 Recorded speeches, interviews and news reports


CARR, E. M., "The Resurgence of Māori Law", Bioneers Talk 2023, 18 min 57 sec, via https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4wVFNmPvHEg (consulted for the last time on May 23rd 2024).

CARR, E. M., "The Rainforest That’s a Legal Person", Ma Earth 2023, 7 min 11 sec, via https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NOglQcqoNX8 (consulted for the last time on May 23rd 2024).

X., ""Whānako whakapapa!" – Protests continue against Te Uru Taumatua", Te Karere TVNZ 2021, 2 min 40 sec, via https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pqTA8u5x4Uk (consulted for the last time on May 24th 2024).

Download scriptie (1.74 MB)
Universiteit of Hogeschool
KU Leuven
Thesis jaar
2024
Promotor(en)
Gleider Hernández
Kernwoorden