Too hot to handle? Multinationals, mensenrechten en de Brexit
In het spanningsveld tussen mondiale bedrijfsactiviteiten en territoriaal begrensde rechtsmacht speelt het Internationaal Privaatrecht (IPR) een sleutelrol. Via foreign direct liability-zaken proberen slachtoffers de moedervennootschap in haar thuisstaat aansprakelijk te stellen voor het falen in haar zorgplicht ten aanzien van een dochtervennootschap in het buitenland. Het IPR bepaalt onder welke voorwaarden dat mogelijk is en welk recht van toepassing is. Door de Brexit is het VK niet langer gebonden aan de geharmoniseerde Europese regels waardoor er nieuwe risico’s maar ook opportuniteiten ontstaan. Is het VK na de Brexit een juridische schuilplaats geworden voor multinationale ondernemingen (MNO’s), of stelt het zich net actief op als forum voor aansprakelijkheid?
Ik begin dit artikel met een fictief voorbeeld. Jan is boer in een klein dorpje in West-Afrika. Elke ochtend staat hij om vijf uur op om zijn akkers te bewerken. Toch mislukken zijn oogsten keer op keer. Het water uit de rivier waarmee hij zijn land bevloeit kleurt zwart. Jonge plantjes sterven nog voor ze rijp zijn. Via via hoort hij dat de vervuiling wordt veroorzaakt door een groep bedrijven die zich enkele jaren geleden in de regio vestigde. Eén van die bedrijven heeft een Europees moederbedrijf.
Boerin Marie bevindt zich in een vergelijkbare situatie, maar bij haar leidt het spoor naar een moederbedrijf in het Verenigd Koninkrijk (VK). Corruptie, gebrek aan middelen en een rechterlijke macht die nauw samenwerkt met grote bedrijven zorgen ervoor dat gerechtigheid in hun thuisland onwaarschijnlijk is. Als laatste redmiddel wenden ze zich tot rechtbanken duizenden kilometers verderop, in Europa.
Voor Jan loopt dat slecht af: het lukt niet om de dochteronderneming en andere betrokken spelers mee voor de rechter te brengen. Marie daarentegen slaagt er in Londen wél in om alle ondernemingen voor de rechter te dagen en ze wint haar zaak.
Jan en Marie bestaan niet. Hun namen zijn te Vlaams, hun dorp te vaag en misschien lijkt hun juridische stap te ambitieus. Maar hun verhaal staat symbool voor duizenden mensen die vandaag getroffen worden door milieuschade of mensenrechtenschendingen gelinkt aan de activiteiten van MNO’s. Daarnaast laten zij zien welke ingrijpende gevolgen verschillen in IPR voor individuen kunnen hebben.
Internationaal Privaatrecht als machtig instrument
Welke rechtbank mag de zaak behandelen? Welk recht is van toepassing? Dit zijn vragen van het IPR, doorgaans beschouwd als een juridisch-technische rechtstak. Echter, achter die technische façade gaat een cruciaal instrument schuil. IPR kan de deur naar gerechtigheid openen of net sluiten. Het bepaalt of slachtoffers toegang krijgen tot een rechter die hun zaak wil en kan behandelen.
Hoewel MNO’s zich vaak presenteren als één grote entiteit, opereren ze in werkelijkheid vaak als afzonderlijke ondernemingen gegroepeerd onder één moedervennootschap. Zo hebben rechtbanken in de staten van de dochteronderneming dan ook vaak weinig mogelijkheden om invloed uit te oefenen op de moederonderneming. Complexe ondernemingsstructuren maken het bijzonder moeilijk om de verantwoordelijkheid bij één entiteit te leggen. Voor slachtoffers wordt het op die manier vaak een eindeloze strijd.
Via foreign direct liability-zaken proberen slachtoffers de moederonderneming aansprakelijk te stellen in landen met een hogere rechtszekerheid wegens schending van haar zorgplicht. Die kan verschillende vormen aannemen en staat los van de aansprakelijkheid van de dochteronderneming. Echter, hierbij rijzen er ook vragen over mogelijke inmenging in de soevereiniteit van andere staten.
Brexit: kans of bedreiging?
Tot eind 2020 bood Europese wetgeving een uniform kader voor het VK. Die regels zorgden voor voorspelbaarheid en duidelijkheid over welke rechter bevoegd is en welk recht toepasbaar is. Met de Brexit viel dat kader weg voor het VK. Velen vreesden dat Londen een toevluchtsoord zou worden voor MNO’s die strengere Europese regels wilden ontwijken. Echter, mijn onderzoek toont een genuanceerder beeld.
Rechtsverschijnselen zoals Forum non conveniens zijn verboden in de EU en leven na de Brexit terug op in het VK. Forum non conveniens laat een rechter toe om rechtsmacht te weigeren wanneer hij meent dat een andere rechtbank geschikter is. Ondanks dat de herinvoering van dit concept voor rechtsonzekerheid kan leiden, toont mijn analyse dat Britse rechters zich vaak bereid tonen om moedervennootschappen aansprakelijk te stellen voor schade veroorzaakt door hun dochters in derde landen. In de zaak Okpabi v. Shell werd bijvoorbeeld onderzocht in hoeverre het Londense moederbedrijf toezicht had gehouden op zijn Nigeriaanse dochteronderneming. Nog verder ging de uitspraak in Dyson, waar de rechter zelfs aansprakelijkheid erkende voor derden in de supply chain, een stap verder dan wat de Europese richtlijn inzake due diligence vandaag voorziet.
Hoewel de EU zich door middel van zijn regelgeving profileert als een voorspelbaar en uniform rechtsstelsel, geldt dat enkel binnen de grenzen van de EU-bubbel. Zo functioneert de wetgeving goed voor geschillen binnen de EU waarbij een moederonderneming een dochter in een andere lidstaat wil betrekken. Echter, zodra het conflict zich buiten de EU afspeelt, schieten de regels tekort. Zo biedt EU-recht de mogelijkheid om moedermaatschappijen aan te spreken op basis van een zorgplicht, maar laat het niet toe om non-EU dochterondernemingen automatisch mee voor de rechter te dagen zonder op intern recht te steunen, iets wat in het VK wél mogelijk is.
Internationaal privaatrechtelijk postkolonialisme
Ik wil nog even terugkomen op de oer-Vlaamse naam Jan die ik in het voorbeeld gegeven heb. Dit voorbeeld was geen toeval. Met deze bewuste keuze wil ik tonen hoe gemakkelijk we onze eigen juridische waarden projecteren. Het feit dat een rechtbank in het VK kan oordelen over de kwaliteit van de rechtspraak in een derde land, plaatst het VK zich in een superieure rol tegenover het land waarover hij spreekt. Ook wanneer het Westen zijn rechtsmacht uitbreidt, toont zij impliciet een wantrouwen tegenover rechtsvoering van derde staten.
Conclusie
De strijd tussen slachtoffers en multinationals blijft ongelijk. Maar het IPR kan die ongelijkheid verkleinen of vergroten. Brexit heeft dat krachtenveld grondig herschud, en toont dat het VK, tegen de verwachtingen in, soms juist ontvankelijker is dan de EU.
If the world is a village, can private international law ensure not every court becomes a home court, while still guiding victims home when justice requires it?
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