Roma Rights: A Comparative Analysis Between Belgium and Romania

Joyce
De Coninck
Belgische Roma – Staat de Belgische Immigratiewetgeving haaks op het mensenrechtendiscours?

Het mensenrechtendiscours en de Belgische immigratiewetgeving zijn onlosmakelijk verbonden met elkaar in onze hedendaagse samenleving. Zeer recent heeft dit verhitte debat nogmaals een hoogtepunt bereikt in de fel gecontesteerde zaak omtrent de Afghaan Navid Sharifi. Niettegenstaande de integratiestappen die deze jongeman ondernomen heeft, werd hij desalniettemin het slachtoffer van de chaos die zo typerend is voor de Belgische immigratiewetgeving. Het feit dat Navid Sharifi niet het enige individu is dat getroffen wordt door deze contradictorische wetgeving is des te schrijnender.  Recent onderzoek toont aan dat een geschatte 20,000 Roma op een al  dan irreguliere wijze huisvesting hebben gevonden in Vlaanderen. Ook zij worden dagdagelijks geconfronteerd met de angst om in een gelijkaardige situatie verzeild te geraken. Hierbij dient wel de grote distinctie in acht genomen te worden dat Roma zelden een verzoek tot asiel kunnen indien daar hun land van oorsprong merendeels gelegen is binnen de Europese Unie. Het hoeft dan ook geen betoog dat deze cruciale kanttekening de rechtspositie en de bijbehorende rechtsbescherming van Roma aanzienlijk beperkt wordt. Ten gevolge hiervan kunnen Roma die gevestigd zijn in België zich louter beroepen op het bestaande mensenrechtenarsenaal ten einde hun basisrechten te beschermen.

De Belgische immigratiewetgeving is gestoeld op het basisidee dat een individu van buitenlandse afkomst zich kan vestigen in België op grond van één van de zestien geldende statuten. Indien een individu voldoet aan de desbetreffende voorwaarden van één van deze statuten, kan deze hier verblijven zonder in angst te moeten leven dat hij uit België kan ontzet worden. Indien men daarentegen niet voldoet aan de voorwaarden van één van deze statuten, hebben vreemdelingen geen rechtsgrond om hier langer dan een periode van drie maanden te verblijven. Wel kunnen zij die op irreguliere basis verblijven in België alsnog aanspraak maken op een beperkt aantal mensenrechten zoals onder meer het verbod op foltering, het recht op dringende medische hulp, het recht op onderwijs, het recht op tewerkstelling en het recht op huisvesting. De grondslag hieromtrent kan men terugvinden in het heersende internationaal publiekrecht waaraan België ogenschijnlijk voldoet. België is echter een stap verder gegaan en heeft doorheen de laatste decennia een gedoogbeleid ontwikkeld ten aanzien van irreguliere vreemdelingen. Ten gevolge hiervan worden deze niet actief opgespoord met het oog op uitzetting of strafrechtelijke vervolging. Dit laatste impliceert dat irreguliere vreemdelingen, waaronder tal van Roma gevestigd in Vlaanderen, zonder meer zouden moeten kunnen genieten van een aantal basisrechten, zoals het recht op onderwijs, het recht op huisvesting en het recht op tewerkstelling. In realiteit daarentegen is niets  minder waar. Daarenboven stipuleert de federale en gedecentraliseerde wetgeving dat overheidsinstanties een meldingsplicht hebben ten aanzien van de bevoegde vreemdelingeninstanties in zoverre zij in aanraking komen met irreguliere immigranten. Dit kan ertoe leiden dat men alsnog het risico loopt uitgezet te worden of strafrechtelijk vervolgd te worden.  

In praktijk impliceert dit dat Roma veelal gediscrimineerd worden op de arbeidsmarkt. Dit leidt er op zijn beurt toe dat zij veeleer op zoek gaan naar tewerkstelling op de zwarte markt of overgaan tot criminaliteit. Het mag dan ook niet verwonderen dat zij vaak in armoede leven. Omwille van de interdependentie van mensenrechten, zal dit gebrek aan inkomsten ertoe leiden dat zij zeer moeilijk huisvesting bekomen die voldoet aan de minimum normen voorgeschreven door tal van mensenrechtenverdragen die België ondertekend en geratificeerd heeft. Hoewel slachtoffers van schendingen van het recht op huisvesting aanspraak maken om dit recht beschermd te zien voor zowel nationale rechtbanken als internationale instanties, gaan Roma in desbetreffende situaties alsnog geen juridische stappen ondernemen gezien het feit dat ze dan ontegensprekelijk in aanraking komen met overheidsinstanties en vervolgens het risico lopen uitgezet te worden of strafrechtelijk vervolgd te worden. Gebrekkige funderingen, gebrek aan elektriciteit, water en verwarming alsook de hiermee gepaard gaande gezondheidsrisico’s binnen dergelijke panden zorgen ervoor dat Roma die de grootste huidige minderheid in Europa vormen, niet kunnen leven in overeenstemming met de standaardnormen voorgeschreven door het mensenrechtendiscours. In plaats van dergelijke situaties juridisch een halt toe te roepen, zwijgen zij daarentegen uit vrees om teruggestuurd te worden naar hun land van oorsprong waar de levensomstandigheden vaak erbarmelijker zijn.

De wisselwerking tussen het mensenrechtendiscours en de Belgische immigratieregelgeving beperkt zich echter niet tot het voorgaande maar is evenzeer terug te vinden op vlak van het recht op onderwijs, het verbod op uitzetting, alsook het verbod op discriminatie, om maar te zwijgen over schendingen met betrekking tot het vrij verkeer van personen op grond van E.U. Recht. Roma die dagdagelijks geconfronteerd worden met tal van persisterende misopvattingen en  allesomvattende discriminatie, hebben ontegensprekelijk rechten die doorheen de geschiedenis en heden ten dage op schrijnende wijze niet gerespecteerd worden.  Het is dan ook van kapitaal belang dat de juridische afdwingbaarheid van deze rechten alsnog bestendigd wordt in België opdat het ogenschijnlijk gedoogbeleid voor irreguliere Roma migranten daadwerkelijk juridische draagkracht krijgt. Onder meer omwille van hun status als een omvangrijke minderheid dient aandacht besteed te worden aan deze mensenrechtenschendingen en dient de bescherming van de basisrechten gewaarborgd te worden opdat we niet in dezelfde voetstappen treden als onze voorvaders.

 

Bibliografie

PART 6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

 

Legislation

 

United Nations

 

  • UN General Assembly. „Charter of the United Nations (1 UNTS XVI) .” San Francisco: United Nations, 24 October 1945.
  • UN General Assembly. „Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1465 UNTS 85).” United Nations, 10 December 1984.
  • UN General Assembly. „Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1249 UNTS 13).” United Nations, 18 December 1979.
  • UN General Assembly. „Convention on the Rights of the Child (1577 U.N.T.S. 3) .” United Nations , 20 November 1989.
  • UN General Assembly. „Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (189 UNTS 150).” United Nations, 28 July 1951.
  • UN General Assembly. „International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (999 UNTS 171).” United Nations, 16 December 1966.
  • UN General Assembly. „International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (993 UNTS 3).” General Assembly Resolution . United Nations, 3 January 1976.
  • UN General Assembly. „International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (660 UNTS 195).” United Nations, 21 December 1965.
  • UN General Assembly. „Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (A/RES/260).” United Nations, 9 December 1948.
  • UN General Assembly. „Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” Resolution (217 A (III)). United Nations, 10 December 1948.

 

 

Regional

 

  • Council of Europe. „European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ETS 5) .” Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 4 November 1950.
  • Organization of American States. „American Convention on Human Rights, "Pact of San Jose", Costa Rica.” Organization of American States, 22 November 1969.
  • Organization of African Unity . „African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights ("Banjul Charter") (CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, 21 I.L.M. 58).” Organization of African Unity , 27 June 1981.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Domestic

 

  • Belgian Federal Government. „De Belgische Grondwet/The Belgian Constitution .” Federal Law. 14 February 1994.
  • Belgian Federal Government. „Law against certain acts of discrimination.” Federal Law. 10 May 2007.
  • Belgian Federal Government. „Law of July 30, 1981 on the punishment of certain acts inspired by racism or xenophobia.” Federal Law . 30 July 1981.
  • Belgian Federal Government. „Wet Betreffende de tewerkstelling van buitenlandse werknemers (1999-04-30/45).” Federal Law. 30 April 1999.
  • Flemish Government. „Vlaamse Wooncode - Flemish Housing Code.” Decree . 1997.
  • Flemish Government. „Decree on the Flemish policy towards ethnic-cultural minorities.” Decree. 1998.
  • Romanian Government. „Romanian Constitution.” 1991.
  • Romanian Ministry of Education, Research, and Youth. „Order No. 1540.” 2007.

 

Case Law

 

European Court of Human Rights

 

  • European Court of Human Rights. „Case "Relating to Certain Aspects of the Laws on the Use of Languages in Education in Belgium" v. Belgium (App.No. 1474/62; 1677/72; 1691/62; 1769/63; 1994/63; 2126/64).” Judgment. Strasbourg: Council of Europe , 23 July 1968. 103.
  • European Court of Human Rights. „Case of Aksu v. Turkey.” Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 15 March 2012. 28.
  • European Court of Human Rights. „Case of Beard v. the United Kingdom (App.No. 24882/94) .” Judgment. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 18 January 2001. 41.
  • European Court of Human Rights. „Case of Chapman v. The United Kingdom (App.No. 27238/95).” Judgment. Council of Europe, 18 January 2001. 43.
  • European Court of Human Rights. „Case of Cobzaru v. Romania (App.No. 48254/99) .” Judgment. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 26 July 2007.
  • European Court of Human Rights. „Case of D.H. and Others v. Czech Republic (App.No. 57325/00) .” Judgment. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 13 November 2007. 90.
  • European Court of Human Rights. „Case of Horvath and Kiss v. Hungary (App.No. 11146/11).” Merits - Judgment. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 29 January 2013. 32.
  • European Court of Human Rights . „Case of Moldovan and others v. Romania (App nos. 41138/98 & 64320/01).” Final Judgment. Strasbourg: Council of Europe , 30 November 2005. 42.
  • European Court of Human Rights. „Case of Orsus and Others v. Croatia (App.No. 15766/03).” Merits - Judgment. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 16 March 2010. 71.
  • European Court of Human Rights. „Case of Sampanis and Others v. Greece (App.No. 59608/09).” Merits - Judgment. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 11 December 2012.
  • European Court of Human Rights. „Case of Sunday Times v. United Kingdom.” Final Judgment. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 26 April 1979. 59.
  • European Court of Human Rights. „Case of Stoica v. Romania (App.no.42722/02).” Jugdment. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 4 March 2008. 24.
  • European Court of Human Rights. „Case of Tyrer v. United Kingdom (App.No.5856/72) .” Judgment. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 25 April 1978. 29.
  • European Court of Human Rights. „Case of Yordanova and Others v. Bulgaria (App.No. 25446/06) .” Final Judgment. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 24 April 2012. 33.

 

Other

 

  • European Committee of Social Rights. „Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE) v. Italy (Complaint No. 58/2009).” Merits - Judgment. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 25 June 2010. 43.
  • International Court of Justice. „Case Concerning Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo) (.” Merits, Judgment. United Nations, 30 November 2010. 639 - 694.
  • Permanent Court of International Justice. „The Greco-Bulgarian "Communities" (Series B, No. 17) .” Advisory Opinion. Permanent Court of International Justice , 31 July 1930.

 

Books

 

  • Achim, Viorel. The Roma in Romanian History . Bucharets: Central European University Press, 2004. 233.
  • Aust, Anthony. Handbook of International Law . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , 2010. 526.
  • Cohen-Jonathan, Gerard. „Human Rights Covenants .” Encyclopedia of Public International Law . Red. Peter Macalister-Smith. Vol. 2. Amsterdam : Elsevier-Science B.V. , 1999. 915 - 922.
  • Council of Europe. „Human Rights of Roma and Travellers in Europe.” Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2012. 251.
  • Crawford, James. Brownlie's Principles of Public International Law . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. 803.
  • Edel, Frederic. The prohibition of discrimination under the European Convention on Human Rights. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing , 2010. 147.
  • Eide , Asbjorn en Allan Rosas. „Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: A Universal Challenge.” Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Red. Asbjorn Eide, Catarina Krause en Allan Rosas. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001. 3 - 7.
  • Eide, Asbjorn. „Introduction: Mechanisms for Supervision and Remedial Action.” Universal Minority Rights . Red. Marc Weller. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. 1 - 26.
  • Drzewicki, Krzysztof. „The Right to Work and Rights in Work.” Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Red. Asbjorn Eide, Catarina Krause en Allan Rosas. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001. 223 - 243.
  • Geurts, Koen. „"Met één achterste kan je niet op twee paarden zitten" Roma-leerlingen op de schoolbanken.” Handboek Leerlingenbegeleiding. Uitgeverij Plantyn , 2010. 25.
  • Goedertier , Geert. „Artikel 14. Verbod van discriminatie.” Handboek EVRM Deel 2. Artikelsgewijze Commentaar. Red. Johan Vande Lanotte en Yves Haeck. Vol. 2. Antwerpen: Intersentia, 2004. 127 - 188.
  • Guy, Will. „Romani Identity and Post-Communist Policy.” Between Past and Future - The Roma of Central and Eastern Europe. Red. Will Guy. Hertfordshire: University of Hertfordshire Press, 2001. 429.
  • Hancock, Ian. We Are the Romania People. Hertfordshire: University of Hertfordshire Press, 2002. 180.
  • Hannum, Hurst. „The Concept and Definition of Minorities .” Universal Minority Rights - A Commentary on the Jurisprudence of International Courts and Treaty Bodies. Red. Marc Weller. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. 49 - 71.
  • Hannikainen, Lauri . „Legal Nature of Minority Rights As Part of Human Rights, Limitations, Derogations, Reservations and Interpretative Statements .” Universal Minority Rights - A Commentary on the Jurisprudence of International Courts and Treaty Bodies. Red. Marc Weller. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. 27 - 73.
  • Henderson, Conway W. Understanding International Law . West- Sussex : Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. 468.
  • Henkin, Louis. „Human Rights.” Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Red. Peter Macalister-Smith. Vol. 2. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science B.V., 1999.
  • Henrard, Kristin . „Non-discrimination and Full and Effective Equality.” Universal Minority Rights - A Commentary on the Jurisprudence of International Courts and Treaty Bodies. Red. Marc Weller. sd. 75 - 147.
  • Hemelsoet , Elias. „Roma: problem or mirror for our societies?” Roma and traveller inclusion in Europe: green questions and answers. Red. Kati Pietarinen. Brussels: Green European Foundation , 2011. 101 - 102.
  • Hemelsoet, Elias. Roma in het Gentse onderwijs. Een verhaal apart? Gent: Academia Press, 2013. 84.
  • Lathouwers, Jan en Ludo Veny. „Artikel 2 Eerste Protocol - Recht op Onderwijs.” Handboek EVRM Deel 2 - Artikelsgewijze Commentaar. Red. Yves Haeck en Johan Vande Lanotte. Vol. 2. Antwerpen: Intersentia, 2004. 400 - 445.
  • Leckie, Scott. „The Human Right to Adequate Housing.” Economic, Social and Cultural Rights . The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001. 149 - 168.
  • Liegeois, Jean-Pierre. Roma, Gypsies, Travellers. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Press, 1994. 323.
  • Marks , Stephen P. „Human Rights, Activities of Universal Organizations.” Encyclopedia of International Public Law. Red. Peter Macalister-Smith. Vol. 2. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science B.V., 1999. 893 - 910.
  • Marushiakova, Elena en Vesselin Popov. „Historical and ethnographic background: Gypsies, Roma, Sinti.” Between Past and Future: The Roma of Central and Eastern Europe. Red. Will Guy. Hertfordshire: University of Hertfordshire Press, 2001. 429.
  • McGarry, Aidan. Who Speaks for Roma? Political Representation of a Transnational Minority Community. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2010. 202.
  • Moucheboeuf, Alcidia. Minority Rights Jurisprudence. Strasbourg : Council of Europe Publishing , 2006. 750.
  • Moisa , Florin. „Roma School Desegregation Policies in Romania.” Ten Years After - A History of Roma School Desegregation in Central and Eastern Europe. Red. Iulius Rostas. Budepest: The Roma Education Fund & Central European University Press, 2012. 283 - 302.
  • Nowak, Manfred. Introduction to the International Human Rights Regime . Leiden : Brill Academic Publishers/Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 365.
  • Nowak, Manfred. „The Right to Education .” Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001. 245 - 271.
  • Pentassuglia, Gaetano. Minority Groups and Judicial Discourse in International Law - A Comparative Perspective . Leiden : Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2009. 276.
  • Pollis, Adamantia . „A New Universalism.” Human RIghts - New Perspectives, New Realities. Red. Adamantia Pollis en Peter Schwab. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 2000. 258.
  • Rostas, Iulius, Mihai Surdu en Marius Taba. „Interview with Costel Bercus from Romania.” Ten Years After - A History of Roma School Desegregation in Central and Eastern Europe. Red. Iulius Rostas. Budapest: The Roma Education Fund & Central European University Press, 2012. 267 - 282.
  • Steiner, Henry J. en Philip Alston. „Universalism and Cultural Relativism - Comment on the Universalist-relativist Debate.” Steiner, Henry J. en Philip Alston. International Human Rights in Context - Law, Politics, Morals. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. 1245.
  • Toma, Stefania. „Segregation and Ethnic Conflicts in Romania.” The Gypsy 'Menace' - Populism and the New Anti-Gypsy Politics. London: Hurst and Co. Publishers Ltd. , 2012. 191 - 213.

 

Articles

 

  • Acton, T.A. „A Three-cornered Choice: Structural Consequences of Value-Priorities in Gypsy Law as a Model for More General Understanding of Variations in the Administration of Justice.” American Journal of Comparative Law 51 (2003): 639 - 657.
  • Barany, Zoltan D. „Living on the Edge: The East European Roma in Postcommunist Politics and Societies .” Slavic Review 53.2 (1994): 321 - 344.
  • Barth, William K. . „Minority Rights, Multiculturalism and the Roma of Europe .” Nordic Journal of International Law 76 (2007): 363-406.
  • Brearley, Margaret . „The Persecution of Gypsies in Europe.” American Behavioral Scientist 45.1 (2001): 588 - 600.
  • Chaudbry, Shivani. „Chapter 15: Development-induced Displacement and Forced Eviction.” Studies in Transnational Legal Policy 41 (2010): 591 - 645.
  • Chapman, Audrey R. en Benjamin Carbonetti. „Human Rights Protections for Vulnerable and Disadvantaged Groups: The Contributions of the UN Committee on Social and Cultural Rights.” Human Rights Quarterly 33.3 (2011): 682 - 732.
  • Chido, C.J. „Peril of Movement: Migrating Roma Risk Expulsion as EU Member States Test the Limits of the Free Movement Directive.” Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law 20 (2011 - 2012): 233 - 254.
  • Csepeli, Gyorgy en David Simon. „Construction of Roma Identity in Eastern and Central Europe: perception and self-identification.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 30.1 (2004): 129 - 150.
  • Duminica, Ramona en Andreea Tabacu. „Brief Reflections on the Exercise of the Right to Education of the Romany Minority.” AGORA International Journal of Juridical Sciences (2010): 2 - 9 .
  • Geurts , Koen, Norah Van den Daele en Natasja Naegels. „Roma kinderen op de schoolbanken.” Welwijs 21.1 (2010): 11- 16.
  • Goldston, James. „Public Interest Litigation in Central and Eastern Europe: Roots, Prospects, and Challenges.” Human Rights Quarterly 28.2 (2006): 492 - 527.
  • Goodwin, Morag. „White Knights on Chargers: Using the US Approach to Promote Roma Rights in Europe.” German Law Journal (2004): 1431 - 1447.
  • Greenberg, Jack . „Roma Victimization: From Now to Antiquity .” Columbia Human Rights Law Review 41 (2009 - 2010): 1 - 12.
  • Greenberg, Jack. „Report on Roma Education Today: From Slavery to Segregation and Beyond.” Columbia Law Review 4.110 (2010): 919-1001.
  • Hemelsoet, Elias. „De Inburgering van Roma - Twee maten, twee gewichten? .” Alert 2 (2013): 3.
  • Hemelsoet, Elias. „De sociale inclusie van Roma: vragen bij een Europees project.” Oikos (2011): 46 - 56.
  • Hemelsoet, Elias. „Gelijke Kansen Als Hefboom voor het Universeel Recht op Onderwijs. Een Pedagogische Lezing.” Tijdschrift voor Onderwijsrecht en Onderwijsbeleid 11.6 (2011): 477 - 484.
  • Hemelsoet, Elias. OIKOS (BRUSSEL) 4.59 (2011): 46 - 56.
  • Hemelsoet, Elias. „Samenleven met Roma: fictie of realiteit?” Armoede en sociale uitsluiting: jaarboek 2011. Red. Danielle Dierckx, et al. Herent: Acco, 2011. 363 - 380.
  • Hemelsoet, Elias. „Thuis zonder Heimat: de Roma.” AGORA 26.2 (2011): 41 - 44.
  • Hershkoff, Helen. „Public Interest Litigation: Selected Issues and Examples.” 2005. siteresources.worldbank.org. 31 January 2013.
  • Huda, Syed Ahmad. „Legal Remedies for the Gypsies: Can the European Legal Frameworks Hold France Liable for the Expulsion of the Roma? .” University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Law 33 (2011-2012): 1075-1108.
  • Huber, Konrad J. . „The Roma: Group Identity, Political Activism, and Policy Response in Post-1989 Europe.” Helsinki Monitor 4 (1993): 44 - 51.
  • Joseph, Sarah. „The Right to Housing, Discrimination, and the Roma in Slovakia.” Human Rights Law Review 5 (2005): 347 - 349.
  • Kabir, Abul Hasnat Monjurul. „Development and Human Rights.” Asia-Pacific Journal on Human Rights and the Law 3 (2002): 97 - 119.
  • Korando, Andrew M. . „Roma Go Home: The Plight of European Roma .” Law and Inequality: A Journal of Theory and Practice 30 (2012): 125 - 147 .
  • MacNaughton, Gillian en Diane F. Frey. „Decent Work for All: A Holistic Human Rights Approach.” American University International Law Review 26.2 (2011): 441 - 483.
  • Mahoney, Diane E. . „Expulsion of the Roma: Is France Violating EU Freedom of Movement and Playing by French Rules or Can it Proceed With Collective Roma Expulsions Free of Charge?” Brooklyn Journal of International Law 37 (2011-2012): 649 - 682.
  • „Mensenrechten: De basis van beschaving of een luxe van het Westen? Interview met Professor Eva Brems.” Ad Rem - Tijdschrift van de Orde van Vlaamse Balies 4.55 (2009): 4 - 7.
  • Leckie, Scott. „Another Step Towards Indivisibility: Identifying the Key Features of Violations of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.” Human Rights Quarterly 20 (1998): 81 - 124.
  • Lu, Haina. „The Personal Application of the Right to Work in the Age of Migration.” Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights 26.1 (2008): 43 - 78.
  • Mechlem, Kerstin. „Treaty Bodies and the Interpretation of Human Rights.” Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 42 (2009): 905 - 947.
  • Mikkola, Matti . „Housing As a Human Right in Europe.” European Journal of Social Security 10.3 (2008): 249 - 294.
  • Mundlak, Guy. „The Right to Work: Linking human rights and employment policy .” International Labour Review 146.3/4 (2007): 189-215.
  • Pogany, Istvan. „Minority RIghts and the Roma of Central and Eastern Europe.” Human Rights Law Review 6 (2006): 1-25.
  • Rekosh, Edwin. „Who Defines the Public Interest? Public Interest Law Strategies in Central and Eastern Europe.” International Journal on Human Rights 2 (2005 ): 167 - 179.
  • Rekosh, Edwin. „Constructing Public Interest Law: Transnational Collaboration and Exchange in Central and Eastern Europe.” UCLA Journal of International Law and Foreign Affairs 13 (2008): 55 - 96.
  • Risse, Mathias. „A Right to Work? A Right to Leisure? Labor Rights as Human Rights.” Law & Ethics of Human Rights 3.3 (2009 ): 41.
  • Roth, Maria en Florin Moisa . „The right to education of Roma children in Romania: European policies and Romanian practices .” International Journal of Children's Rights 19 (2011): 501 - 522.
  • Sarkin, Jeremy en Mark Koenig. „Developing the Right to Work: Intersecting and Dialoguing Human Rights and Economic Policy.” Human Rights Quarterly 33.1 (2011): 1-42.
  • Senders, Mignon. „Women and the Right to Adequate Housing .” Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights 16 (1998): 175 - 200.
  • Sweeney, James A. „Margins of Appreciation: Cultural Relativity and the European Court of Human Rights in the Post-Cold War Era.” International and Comparative Law Quarterly 54.2 (2005): 459 - 474.
  • Teson, Fernando R. . „International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism .” Virginia Journal of International Law 25 (1984 - 1985): 869 - 900.
  • Tilley, John J. „Cultural Relativism.” Human Rights Quarterly 22 (2000): 501-547.
  • Uzunova, Iskra. „Roma Integration in Europe: Why Minority Rights Are Failing .” Arizona Journal of International and Comparative Law 27 (2010): 283 - 323.
  • Wahlstrom, Ninni. „The Struggle for the Right to Education in the European Convention on Human Rights.” Journal of Human Rights 8 (2009): 150 - 161.
  • Warnke, Adam M. . „Vagabonds, Tinkers, and Travelers.” Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 7 (1999 - 2000): 335 - 367.

 

Organizations/Reports

 

 

  • Agentschap voor Binnenlands Bestuur. Afdeling Beleid Binnenland, Steden en Inburgering. „Vlaams Actieplan MOE (Roma) - migranten 2012.” Vlaamse Overheid , December 2012. 68.
  • Amnesty International. „Briefing to the Romanian Government on the right to adequate housing with regard to the marginalized Romani communities (EUR 39/001/2013).” 2013.
  • Amnesty International. „Mind the Legal Gap - Roma and the Right to Housing in Romania (EUR 39/004/2011).” 2011.
  • Amnesty International. „Unsafe Foundations - Secure the Right to Housing in Romania (EUR 39/002/2012).” 2012.
  • Andreescu, Gabriel. Analytical Report PHARE RAXEN_CC Minority Education: National Focal Point Romania. European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia. Vienna, 2004.
  • Bodewig, Christian en Lucia Kurekova. „Enhancing the Employment Chances of Roma - Knowledge Brief.” 2009.
  • Bodewig, Christian, et al. „Europe and Central Asia - Roma Inclusion: An Economic Opportunity for Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Romania and Serbia Policy Note.” Human Development Sector Unit, 2010.
  • Centre for Equal Opportunities and Opposition to Racism. „Housing Conditions of Roma and Travellers : Belgium RAXEN National Focal Point.” Thematic Study. Centre for Equal Opportunities and Opposition to Racism, March 2009. 69.
  • Council of Europe . The Council of Europe: Protecting the Rights of Roma. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 2011.
  • European Commission . „Roma in Europe: the Implementation of European Union Instruments and Policies for Roma Inclusion- Progress Report 2008-2010.” Working Document . 2010.
  • European Parliament. „Measures to Promote the Situation of Roma EU Citizens in the European Union.” Directorate-General for Internal Policies, 2011.
  • European Roma Information Office. „Discrimination Against Roma in the EU in 2012.” European Commission, January 2013. 17.
  • European Roma Rights Centre. „The Glass Box - Exclusion of Roma from Employment.” 2007.
  • De Laat, Joost. „Economic Costs of Roma Exclusion.” Europe and Central Asia Human Development Department, 2010.
  • Fleck, Gabor en Cosima Rughinis. Come Closer - Inclusion and Exclusion of Roma in Present-Day Romanian Society. Bucharest: National Agency for Roma, 2008.
  • „Flemish Action Plan on Central and Eastern European (Roma) Migration.” Flemish Government , 2012. 56.
  • Goldston, James en Mirna Adjami. The Opportunities and Challenges of Using Public Interest Litigation to Secure Access to Justice for Roma Minorities in Central and Eastern Europe (Prepared for the World Justice Forum). Vienna : American Bar Association, 2008.
  • Horvath, Istvan. Formal and Informal Education for Roma: Different Models and Experience - Two Decades of Educational Policies for the Roma: Lessons and Dilemmas from Romania. Institute for Ethnic Studies. Ljubljana.
  • Belgian Federal Government. „National Roma Integration Strategy .” Samenst. Staatssecretaris voor Maatschappelijke Integratie. Staatssecretaris voor Maatschappelijke Integratie , 6 March 2012. 54.
  • Machiels , Toon. „Keeping the Distance or Taking the Chances .” European Commission , 2002.
  • Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights. „The Right to Adequate Housing (Fact Sheet No.12/Rev.1) .” UN Habitat, 2009.
  • Ringold, Dena, Mitchell A. Orenstein en Erika Wilkens. Roma in an Expanding Europe - Breaking the Poverty Cycle. The International Bank for Reconstruction/The World Bank. Washington DC: The World Bank, 2005.
  • Romani CRISS. „Shadow Report for the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination On the Occassion of Report of Romania .” Bucharest: Romani CRISS, 27 July 2010. 40.
  • Rusu, Marioara, et al. „Incluziunea romilor din Romania: politici, institutii, experiente/ Roma Inclusion in Romania: Policies, Institutions and Examples.” 2012.
  • Surdu, Laura, Eniko Vincze en Marius Wamsiedel. Roma School Participation, Non-attendance and Discrimination in Romania . ROMANI CRISS. Bucharest: Publishing Vandemonde, 2011.
  • Touquet, Heleen en Johan Wets. „Context, drijfveren en Opportuniteiten van Midden- en Oost-Europese immigratie: Een exploratief onderzoek met focus op Roma.” Onderzoeksinstituut voor Arbeid en Samenleving , 2013.
  • United Nations Housing Rights Programme. Housing Rights Legislation: Review of International and National Legal Instruments . Report No.1. (UN-HABITAT) United Nations Human Settlements Programme. Nairobi: United Nations, 2002.
  • Vlaams Minderhedencentrum. „Hoe krijg je Romakinderen naar school? Het motivatieplan 'Scholarisatie Roma'.” Annual Report. 2008.
  • Vlaams Minderhedencentrum. Werknota: Roma in Vlaanderen, knelpunten en aanbevelingen. Brussel: Vlaams Minderhedencentrum, 2010.
  • Wauters, Joris, Noel Clycq en Christiane Timmerman. Aspiraties en sociale mobiliteit bij Roma - De visies van beleidsmakers, middenveldorganizaties, schoolactoren en Roma zelf. Steunpunt Inburgering en Integratie. Antwerpen: Steunpunt Inburgering en Integratie, 2012.

 

 

Declarations/Resolutions/Concluding Observations

 

 

  • Committee of Ministers. „Recommendation No R (2000) 4 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on the Education of Roma/Gypsy Children in Europe.” Adopted Recommendation. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 3 February 2000. 4.
  • Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. „Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under articles 16 and 17 of the Covenant [on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights] : concluding observations of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Belgium (E/C.12/BEL/CO/3) .” United Nations, 4 January 2008. 6.
  • Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. „General Comment 18 : The Right to Work (E/C.12/GC/18).” General Comment. Geneva: United Nations, 24 November 2005.
  • Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. „General Comment 3: The nature of States parties obligations (E/1991/23) .” General Comment. Geneva: United Nations, 14 December 1990.
  • Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. „General Comment 4: The Right to Adequate Housing (E/1992/23) .” General Comment. Geneva: United Nations, 1991. 7.
  • Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. „General Comment 7: Forced Evictions (E/1998/22).” General Comment. Geneva: United Nations, 1997. 6.
  • Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. „Consideration of Reports Submitted by State Parties Under Article 9 of the Convention: Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination.” Concluding Observation. United Nations, 11 April 2008. 7.
  • Human Rights Committee. „General Comment No. 23: The Rights of Minorities (Art.27) (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.5).” General Comment . United Nations , 1994.
  • UN Conference on Human Settlements. „Vancouver Declaration on Human Settlements and the Vancouver Action Plan of 1976.” Vancouver: United Nations, 1976. 44.
  • UN Commission on Human Rights. „Prohibition of Forced Evictions (E/CN.4/RES/2004/28) .” Commission on Human Rights Resolution: 2004/28. United Nations, 14 April 2004. 3.
  • UN General Assembly. „Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (A/CONF.157/23).” Declaration. United Nations, 2 July 1993.
  • UN General Assembly. „Declaration on the Rights of Persons belonging to National, Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities (A/RES/47/135).” United Nations, 18 December 1992.
  • UN General Assembly. „Global Strategy for Shelter for the Year 2000 (A/RES/43/181).” General Assembly Resolution. United Nations, 20 December 1988.
  • United Nations Specialized Conferences. „Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (A/CONF.177/20).” United Nations, October 1995.

 

 

 

Extra Sources and Websites

 

 

Download scriptie (1.51 MB)
Universiteit of Hogeschool
Universiteit Gent
Thesis jaar
2013