Wij, het volk. Het volk, en wij.
Het recht op zelfbeschikking is iets waar iedereen recht op heeft. Zowel u als ik maken deel uit van een groter geheel, een groepering waarmee we verschillende eigenschappen delen, zij het gemeenschappelijke taal, cultuur, geloof of gewoontes. Zo zijn bijvoorbeeld Spanjaarden een volk, maar zijn Catalanen dat ook? Zo kunnen Canadezen als een volk beschouwd worden, maar kan hetzelfde gezegd worden over de e Québécois (inwoners van Québec)?
Er zijn zoveel "volkeren" verspreid over de hele wereld. Maar één van de grootste en meest prangende vragen, zeker wat het recht op zelfbeschikking betreft, blijft: "Wat is een volk?"
“... the Doctrine of Self-Determination. On the surface it seemed reasonable: let the people decide. It was in fact ridiculous because the people cannot decide until somebody decides who are the people.”
Deze quote van Ivor Jennings geeft de essentie van de scriptie mee. Dit oeuvre over het volksbegrip neemt de lezer dan ook mee op een reis naar een tijd waar ‘het collectieve recht’ op zelfbeschikking nog in zijn kinderschoenen stond om via de dekolonisatieperiode uit te komen bij de actuele betekenis en interpretatie ervan. Uit het onderzoek blijkt dat de oorspronkelijke betekenis van zelfbeschikking ontstond in de tijd van de Amerikaanse en Franse revoluties, als een ‘recht’ van volkeren om zelf te bepalen hoe en door wie ze bestuurd willen worden en in welke richting ze zich politiek, economisch, sociaal en cultureel willen ontwikkelen. In het historische luik over de dekolonisatieperiode bleek echter al snel dat deze oorspronkelijke betekenis van het zelfbeschikkingsrecht door de Verenigde Naties gebruikt werd als een systeem om het bestuur van gekoloniseerde landen over te dragen aan de bevolkingsgroepen binnen die staten, een ‘ad hoc’ systeem om de dekolonisatie zo vlot mogelijk te laten verlopen als het ware.
Hoewel het zelfbeschikkingsrecht zich in deze periode ontwikkelde tot internationaal gewoonterecht en zelfs Jus Cogens (fundamentele internationale normen), doet de invulling en interpretatie van dat recht eerder denken aan een ‘recht op dekolonisatie’ dan aan een recht op zelfbeschikking. Dit was vooral te wijten aan de nadruk op het externe aspect van zelfbeschikking als toepassingsvorm, om de Afrikaanse volkeren onafhankelijk te laten worden, en de grenzen van de nieuwe staten vast te leggen. Deze invulling van het recht op zelfbeschikking stond dan ook schril in contrast met de internationale interpretatie van dit recht na de dekolonisatieperiode, waarbij de focus veel meer lag op het interne zelfbeschikkingsrecht.
Een van de belangrijkste vraagstukken bij de toepassing van het recht op zelfbeschikking is de omschrijving en interpretatie van het volksbegrip, en als verlengde hiervan, het minderheidsbegrip. Vanaf het moment dat het recht op zelfbeschikking in internationale instrumenten, rechtspraak en rechtsleer begon te verschijnen, tot op de dag van vandaag, blijft de internationale rechtsorde antwoorden zoeken op de vraag wat ‘volkeren’ nu precies inhoudt. De vage omschrijving van het volksbegrip in het internationaal recht is ook meteen één van de redenen waarom de relevantie en betekenis van het zelfbeschikkingsrecht voor volkeren (en minderheden) juist zo moeilijk vast te pinnen is.
Desalniettemin tracht deze scriptie zoveel mogelijk duidelijkheid over terminologie rond ‘volkeren’ en ‘minderheden’ te brengen. Gekwalificeerd worden als een volk is immers de eerste en belangrijkste (maar niet de enige) stap om te kunnen "genieten" van het recht op zelfbeschikking. De scriptie haalt in dat kader een aantal interpretatiemogelijkheden aan die, mijns inziens, het meest bijdragen tot min of meer duidelijk afgebakende invullingen van zowel het volks- als het minderheidsbegrip. Zo zijn er binnen de gehanteerde visie drie verschillende mogelijkheden tot invulling van het ‘volksbegrip’ bij zelfbeschikking te onderscheiden: naties, etnische subgroepen als onderdeel van naties en inheemse volkeren. De voorwaarden tot kwalificatie van een volk zijn dan ook afhankelijk van groep tot groep. Uit de studie van de rechtssubjecten van het recht op zelfbeschikking blijkt dat volkeren en minderheden tot op de dag van vandaag twee te onderscheiden entiteiten zijn. Zo hebben ‘volkeren’ rechtstreekse toegang tot het zelfbeschikkingsrecht, maar minderheden enkel een onrechtstreeks, op basis van de bescherming van de individuele mensenrechten uit hetzelfde verdrag (Het BUPO-Verdrag). Hier kwam de bedenking naar boven in hoeverre het onderscheid tussen volkeren en minderheden, althans wat het toepassingsgebied van het intern recht op zelfbeschikking betreft, nog relevant is. De bescherming die aan beide groepen geboden wordt, lijkt immers op hetzelfde neer te komen: de mogelijkheid om te participeren aan het besluitvormingsproces om zo de collectieve (individuele) identiteit van het volk of de minderheid te beschermen.
Eén ding is zeker: het recht op zelfbeschikking is allesbehalve een zwart-wit verhaal. Het is eerder een verschillend tinten grijs, die ver de vijftig voorbijstreeft. Hoe dan ook tracht deze scriptie de lezer mee te nemen in de wonderlijke en dynamische wereld van het internationaal publiekrecht. Deze scriptie is dan ook voor elke lezer die een leidraad zoekt in de wirwar van het recht op zelfbeschikking, of zich wil verdiepen in het "volksbegrip" (dat onderdeel uitmaakt van ieders leven).
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Gepubliceerde doctoraatsproefschriften
RAIC, D., Statehood and the Law of Self-Determination, Leiden, Kluwer Law International, 2002, 495 p.
LLM Thesissen
TSANAVA, T., Do Minorities have the Right to Self-Determination? Comparative Analysis of Kosovoand Chechnya, Budapest, Central European University, 2011, 57 p.
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