Verse groenten wassen in gedesinfecteerd water, een beredeneerde keuze?
- ThomasDe Bock
Het industrieel wassen van minimaal verwerkte groenten is een proces waarover meningen sterk verdeeld zijn binnen de EU en de wereld. Het toevoegen van chemische ontsmettingsmiddelen aan het proceswater is standaardpraktijk in verschillende (Zuid-) Europese landen, maar is niet toegestaan in verschillende (Noord-)Europese landen. Met België in de kern van deze tweestrijd, kan een wetenschappelijk onderbouwde keuze die tevens de belangen van Belgische stakeholders in rekening brengt verhelderend zijn.
‘Food safety is everyone’s business’
‘Voedselveiligheid is ieders zaak’ stelt de Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO/WHO). Inderdaad, voedselveiligheidsrisico’s kunnen gevolgen hebben voor u en ik. Als consument verwachten we dan ook dat beleidsmakers beslissingen nemen gebaseerd feiten en wetenschappelijk bewijs, rekening houdend met de belangen van stakeholders. Ook de Europese Unie streeft naar een meer gestructureerd en transparant beslissingsproces. In beleidsvoering van voedselveiligheid nemen factoren als de duurzaamheid, de perceptie van de consument, naast de impact op de menselijke gezondheid, duidelijk aan belang toe.
Voor het nemen van meer geïnformeerde beslissingen wordt de multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) methode voorgesteld. Deze methode laat een selectie uit verschillende opties toe gebaseerd op de evaluatie van meerdere criteria. Deze criteria of beslissingsfactoren kunnen een gewicht toegekend krijgen, wat het relatief belang binnen de beslissingcontext weerspiegelt. De MCDA methode werd aangewend om de complexe kwestie ‘waswaterdesinfectie of niet’, beter te begrijpen en op te lossen.
Case study: wassen van (versneden) bladgroenten
De zakjes (versneden) sla, klaar om te openen en op te eten, doorlopen een uitgebreid productieproces voordat ze de supermarkt bereiken. Het industrieel wasproces is hiervan de belangrijkste stap. In Nederland en België worden bladgroenten gewassen in grote volumes (ijs)water om zand en ander vuil te verwijderen. De bladgroenten kunnen echter microbieel gecontamineerd zijn, waardoor het water zich kan voordoen als oorzaak voor kruisbesmetting. Dit zal er toe leiden, dat in plaats van enkele besmette blaadjes sla, een volledige batch microbieel besmet zal zijn. De oplossing hiervoor is de desinfectie van het proceswater. Er bestaan naast fysische methodes, zoals UV bestraling en ultrafiltratie, ook chemische desinfectiemethodes. Het meest gebruikte en gekendste voorbeeld is het gebruik van hypochloriet. In landen als Italië en Spanje wordt dit aan het waswater toegevoegd om kruisbesmetting via dit water te voorkomen. Het nadeel van hypochloriet is dat bij verkeerd en/of overmatig gebruik er chemische bijproducten gevormd kunnen worden, die een schadelijk effect op het menselijk lichaam hebben. De belangrijkste bijproducten zijn trihalomethanen en haloacetic acids. Bij te lang en verkeerde opgslag kunnen er in vloeibaar hypochloriet ook degradatieproducten zoals chloraten gevormd worden. De mogelijke risico’s van deze chemische bijproducten, hebben geleid tot een verbod op het gebruik van chemische desinfectiemiddelen in de groenteverwerkende indsutrie in verschillende Europese landen.
Multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA)
De MCDA methodiek werd toegepast om de meest geschikte wasmethode van (versneden) bladgroenten te bepalen. Volgende vier controlestrategieën worden momenteel als meest industrieel relevant beschouwd:
- wassen met drinkbaar water;
- in-line waswaterdesinfectie met natriumhypochloriet (NaOCl), ook vloeibaar chloor of ‘javel’ genoemd;
- off-line desinfectie met natriumhypochloriet (NaOCl);
- in-line desinfectie met perazijnzuur (PAA).
Perazijnzuur is een desinfectiemiddel dat toeneemt aan populariteit in de voedingsindustrie. Het is duurder dan chloor, maar vormt weinig tot geen ongewenste bijproducten.
Bij de ‘in-line’ desinfectiemethodes worden desinfectantia in de wastank toegepast, in tegenstelling tot ‘off-line’ desinfectiemethodes waarbij lagere concentraties buiten de wastank worden toegepast om zo terug drinkbaarwaterkwaliteit te behalen. Alle desinfectiemethodes zullen toelaten dat het water gedurende langere periodes gebruikt kan worden, waardoor het algemeen waterverbruik lager ligt en de kruisbesmetting van microorganismen vermeden wordt.
De controlestrategieën ondergingen een evaluatie voor vijf hoofdcriteria en verschillende sub-criteria. Drie bronnen van informatie en data werden aangewend ter evaluatie van deze criteria. Allereerst werd kwantitieve data, geselecteerd uit wetenschappelijke literatuur, gecombineerd tot probabilistische distributies. Deze distributies weerspiegelen de onzekerheid in experimenteel gegenereerd bewijs en de variaties in de werking van de wasmethodes. Alternatief werd er gekozen voor een evaluatie door vakexperten. De experten beoordeelden de verschillende controlestrategieën op een Likert-schaal van 5.
Een belangrijk onderdeel van de beleidsvoering op Europees niveau is de consultatie van stakeholders. Uit een online stakeholderconsultatie bij Belgische stakeholders kwam de conclusie dat ‘de impact op de menselijke gezondheid’ en ‘de milieu-impact’ consistent als de belangrijkste factoren beschouwd worden. In vergelijking met de ‘technologische-, economische-, en maatschappelijke impact’ van de controlestrategiën waaraan relatief minder belang werd geuit.
Wassen in (ijs)water of toch niet?
Maar wat is nu de meest geschikte wasmethode? Een evaluatie van de verschillende criteria waaraan de verzamelde gewichten van de stakeholders toegekend waren, leidde met behulp van een wiskundig algoritme tot volgende rangschikking van de vier controlestrategieën:
- wassen met drinkbaar water;
- in-line desinfectie met perazijnzuur (PAA);
- off-line desinfectie met natriumhypochloriet (NaOCl);
- in-line desinfectie met natriumhypochloriet (NaOCl).
‘Wassen met drinkbaar water’ behaalt consistent de hoogste score, gevolgd door ‘waswaterdesinfectie met perazijnzuur’. De twee methodes waar hypochloriet wordt gebruikt kwamen voor de Belgische situatie op voor- en laatste plaats in de rangschikking.
De gunstige economische en maatschappelijke impact van deze wasmethode kunnen de eerste positie verklaren van de controlestrategie ‘wassen met drinkbaar water’. Groentenverwerkende bedrijven zullen immers minder kosten moeten maken voor het gebruik en opslag van chemicaliën. Wassen met water wordt nog steeds beter aanvaard door consumenten en kent een meer geharmoniseerd beleidsvoering.
‘Wassen met drinkbaar water’ kan echter kruisbesmetting van microbiële pathogenen niet uitsluiten, waardoor de impact op de menselijke gezondheid lager scoort. Deze wasmethode verbruikt gemiddeld 7.5 m3 water/ton groenten, in vergelijking met de desinfectiemethodes waarvoor gemiddeld 5 m3 water/ton groenten nodig zal zijn. Dit verklaart de lagere score voor de milieu-impact van de controlestrategie. Met een toenemende waterschaarste in Vlaanderen kan dit niet buiten beschouwing gelaten worden.
De MCDA-methode werd gebruikt als leidraad om op een gestructureerde manier tot een beter begrip van dit complex probleem te komen. De meer negatieve perceptie van de Belgische consument tegenover het gebruik chemische desinfectiemiddelen is een bepalende factor voor het gebruik van (ijs)water in België, ook al kan deze methode geen garantie bieden voor de microbiële veiligheid van het eindproduct en ligt het verbruik van drinkbaar water hoger. Dan luidt de vraag nog: ‘wat vindt u belangrijker?’
Bibliografie
Acar, Sinem Yavaş, and Yeşim Soyer. 2017. “Microorganisms Found in MPR and Packaged Produce and Their Detection Methods.” P. 67 in Minimally processed refrigerated fruits and vegetables in Food Science & Technology. Vol. 6.
ADAS, Agricultural Development and Advisory Service. 2016. “Chlorine and Its Oxides, Chlorate and Perchlorate Review.” edited by Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board.
Ahvenainen, R. 1996. “New Approaches in Improving the Shelf Life of Minimally Processed Fruit and Vegetables.” 7(6):179–87.
Alberto, Carlos, and Daza Donoso. 2008. Application of Multicriteria Decision Analysis Tools To The.
Aliste, M., I. Garrido, P. Flores, P. Hellín, N. Vela, S. Navarro, and J. Fenoll. 2020. “Reclamation of Agro-Wastewater Polluted with Thirteen Pesticides by Solar Photocatalysis to Reuse in Irrigation of Greenhouse Lettuce Grown.” Journal of Environmental Management 266(October 2019):110565.
Anon. 2002. “Koninklijk Besluit van 14 Januari 2002 Betreffende de Kwaliteit van Voor Menselijke Consumptie Bestemd Water Dat in Voedingsmiddeleninrichtingen Verpakt Wordt of Dat Voor de Fabricage En/of Het in de Handel Brengen van Voedingsmiddelen Wordt Gebruikt.” BELGISCH STAATSBLAD — 19.03.2002.
Anon. n.d. “PROMETHEE-GAIA Software.” Retrieved May 17, 2021 (http://www.promethee-gaia.net/index.html).
Artés, Francisco, and Ana Allende. 2005. Vegetables , Fruits and Juices. Elsevier Ltd.
Baert, Katleen, Xavier Van Huffel, Liesbeth Jacxsens, Dirk Berkvens, Herman Diricks, André Huyghebaert, and Mieke Uyttendaele. 2012. “Measuring the Perceived Pressure and Stakeholders’ Response That May Impact the Status of the Safety of the Food Chain in Belgium.” Food Research International 48(1):257–64.
Banach, J. L., H. van Bokhorst-van de Veen, L. S. van Overbeek, P. S. van der Zouwen, M. H. Zwietering, and H. J. van der Fels-Klerx. 2020. “Effectiveness of a Peracetic Acid Solution on Escherichia Coli Reduction during Fresh-Cut Lettuce Processing at the Laboratory and Industrial Scales.” International Journal of Food Microbiology 321:108537.
Banach, J. L., L. S. van Overbeek, M. N. Nierop Groot, P. S. van der Zouwen, and H. J. van der Fels-Klerx. 2018. “Efficacy of Chlorine Dioxide on Escherichia Coli Inactivation during Pilot-Scale Fresh-Cut Lettuce Processing.” International Journal of Food Microbiology 269:128–36.
Banach, J. L., M. H. Zwietering, and H. J. van der Fels-Klerx. 2021. “Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis to Evaluate Control Strategies for Preventing Cross-Contamination during Fresh-Cut Lettuce Washing.” Food Control 128(March):108136.
Banach, Jennifer L., Imca Sampers, Sam Van Haute, and H. J. van der Fels-Klerx. 2015. “Effect of Disinfectants on Preventing the Cross-Contamination of Pathogens in Fresh Produce Washing Water.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12(8):8658–77.
Bao Loan, Huynh Nguyen, Liesbeth Jacxsens, Ali Abbas Mohammad Kurshed, and Bruno De Meulenaer. 2016. “3-Chlorotyrosine Formation in Ready-to-Eat Vegetables Due to Hypochlorite Treatment and Its Dietary Exposure and Risk Assessment.” Food Research International 90:186–93.
Barth, Margaret, Thomas R. Hankinson, Hong Zhuang, and Frederick Breidt. 2009. Compendium of the Microbiological Spoilage of Foods and Beverages.
Bartolini, Fabio, and D. Viaggi. 2010. “Recent Developments in Multi-Criteria Evaluation of Regulations.” Quality Assurance and Safety of Crops and Foods 2(4):182–96.
Baselice, Antonio, Francesca Colantuoni, Daniel A. Lass, Gianluca Nardone, and Antonio Stasi. 2017. “Trends in EU Consumers’ Attitude towards Fresh-Cut Fruit and Vegetables.” Food Quality and Preference 59:87–96.
BECHTOLD, KAY. 2016. “The Many Uses and Hazards of Peracetic Acid.” The Synergist. Retrieved March 18, 2021 (https://synergist.aiha.org/201612-peracetic-acid-uses-and-hazards).
Behzadian, Majid, R. B. Kazemzadeh, A. Albadvi, and M. Aghdasi. 2010. “PROMETHEE: A Comprehensive Literature Review on Methodologies and Applications.” European Journal of Operational Research 200(1):198–215.
Berg, Gabriele, Martin Grube, Michael Schloter, and Kornelia Smalla. 2014. “The Plant Microbiome and Its Importance for Plant and Human Health.” Frontiers in Microbiology 5(SEP):1–2.
Beuchat, Larry R. 2002. “Ecological Factors Influencing Survival and Growth of Human Pathogens on Raw Fruits and Vegetables.” Microbes and Infection 4(4):413–23.
Bomfeh, Mphil Kennedy. 2020. “THE SHIFT FROM TRADITIONAL TO AN IMPROVED FISH SMOKING OVEN IN GHANA : IMPLICATIONS FOR FOOD SAFETY AND PUBLIC HEALTH.”
Boone, Harry N. Jr., and Deborah A. Boone. 2012. “Analyzing Likert Data Likert-Type Versus Likert Scales.” Journal of Extension 50(2):30.
Bottomley, Paul A., and John R. Doyle. 2001. “A Comparison of Three Weight Elicitation Methods: Good, Better, and Best.” Omega 29(6):553–60.
Bouwknegt, Martijn, Brecht Devleesschauwer, Heather Graham, Lucy J. Robertson, Joke W. B. van der Giessen, and the Euro-FBP workshop participants. 2018. “Prioritisation of Food-Borne Parasites in Europe, 2016.” Eurosurveillance 23(9).
Bozkurt, Hayriye, Tina Bell, Floris van Ogtrop, Kim Yen Phan-Thien, and Robyn McConchie. 2021. “Assessment of Microbial Risk during Australian Industrial Practices for Escherichia Coli O157:H7 in Fresh Cut-Cos Lettuce: A Stochastic Quantitative Approach.” Food Microbiology 95(November 2020):103691.
Brandl, M. T., and R. Amundson. 2008. “Leaf Age as a Risk Factor in Contamination of Lettuce with Escherichia Coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Enterica.” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 74(8):2298–2306.
Brenntag, N. V. 2013. Natriumhypochloriet 12,5% Brenntag.
Buchholz, Annemarie L., Gordon R. Davidson, Bradley P. Marks, Ewen C. D. Todd, and Elliot T. Ryser. 2012a. “Quantitative Transfer of Escherichia Coli O157: H7 To Equipment during Small-Scale Production of Fresh-Cut Leafy Greens.” Journal of Food Protection 75(7):1184–97.
Buchholz, Annemarie L., Gordon R. Davidson, Bradley P. Marks, Ewen C. D. Todd, and Elliot T. Ryser. 2012b. “Transfer of Escherichia Coli O157:H7 from Equipment Surfaces to Fresh-Cut Leafy Greens during Processing in a Model Pilot-Plant Production Line with Sanitizer-Free Water.” Journal of Food Protection 75(11):1920–29.
Camara, MA, A. Barba, S. Cermeño, G. Martinez, and J. Oliva. 2017. “Effect of Processing on the Disappearance of Pesticide Residues in Fresh-Cut Lettuce: Bioavailability and Dietary Risk.” Journal of Environmental Science and Health. Part. B, Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes 52(12):880–86.
Cardador, Maria Jose, and Mercedes Gallego. 2012. “Effect of the Chlorinated Washing of Minimally Processed Vegetables on the Generation of Haloacetic Acids.” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 60(29):7326–32.
Cardoen, Sabine, Xavier Van Huffel, Dirk Berkvens, Sophie Quoilin, Geneviève Ducoffre, Claude Saegerman, Niko Speybroeck, Hein Imberechts, Lieve Herman, Richard Ducatelle, and Katelijne Dierick. 2009. “Evidence-Based Semiquantitative Methodology for Prioritization of Foodborne Zoonoses.” Foodborne Pathogens and Disease 6(9):1083–96.
Chardon, Jurgen, Arno Swart, Eric Evers, and Eelco Franz. 2016. “Public Health Relevance of Cross-Contamination in the Fresh-Cut Vegetable Industry.” Journal of Food Protection 79(1):30–36.
Cheng, Steven, Christine W. Chan, and Gordon H. Huang. 2003. “An Integrated Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis and Inexact Mixed Integer Linear Programming Approach for Solid Waste Management.” Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence 16(5–6):543–54.
Churchill, G. A. 1995. Marketing Research Methodological Foundations. New York: The Dryden Press.
Cinelli, Marco, Miłosz Kadziński, Michael Gonzalez, and Roman Słowiński. 2020. “How to Support the Application of Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis? Let Us Start with a Comprehensive Taxonomy.” Omega (United Kingdom) 96.
Cook, R. 2016. “Fresh-Cut Value-Added Produce Marketing Trends.”
De Corato, Ugo. 2020. “Improving the Shelf-Life and Quality of Fresh and Minimally-Processed Fruits and Vegetables for a Modern Food Industry: A Comprehensive Critical Review from the Traditional Technologies into the Most Promising Advancements.” Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 60(6):940–75.
Corrente, Salvatore, José Rui Figueira, and Salvatore Greco. 2014. “The SMAA-PROMETHEE Method.” European Journal of Operational Research 239(2):514–22.
Crook, P. D., J. F. Aguilera, E. J. Threlfall, S. J. O’Brien, G. Sigmundsdóttir, D. Wilson, I. S. T. Fisher, A. Ammon, H. Briem, J. M. Cowden, M. E. Locking, H. Tschäpe, W. van Pelt, L. R. Ward, and M. A. Widdowson. 2003. “A European Outbreak of Salmonella Enterica Serotype Typhimurium Definitive Phage Type 204b in 2000.” Clinical Microbiology and Infection 9(8):839–45.
Cuggino, Sofia G., Agostini Perez Alejandra, Sandra Kopp, and Ricardo Novo. 2018. “Quality and Safety Management Systems in the Production of Vegetables.” in Quantitative Methods for Food Safety and Quality in the Vegetable Industry.
Davidson, Gordon R., Annemarie L. Buchholz, and Elliot T. Ryser. 2013. “Efficacy of Commercial Produce Sanitizers against Nontoxigenic Escherichia Coli O157: H7 during Processing of Iceberg Lettuce in a Pilot-Scale Leafy Green Processing Line.” Journal of Food Protection 76(11):1838–45.
Davidson, Gordon R., Chelsea N. Kaminski-Davidson, and Elliot T. Ryser. 2017. “Persistence of Escherichia Coli O157:H7 during Pilot-Scale Processing of Iceberg Lettuce Using Flume Water Containing Peroxyacetic Acid-Based Sanitizers and Various Organic Loads.” International Journal of Food Microbiology 248:22–31.
Davidson, Gordon R., Chelsea N. Kaminski, and Elliot T. Ryser. 2014. “Impact of Organic Load on Escherichia Coli O157:H7 Survival during Pilot-Scale Processing of Iceberg Lettuce with Acidified Sodium Hypochlorite.” Journal of Food Protection 77(10):1669–81.
Dawes, John. 2008. “Do Data Characteristics Change According to the Number of Scale Points Used? An Experiment Using 5-Point, 7-Point and 10-Point Scales.” International Journal of Market Research 50(1):61–77.
Delbeke, Stefanie. 2015. “Prevalence, Behavior and Risk Assessment of Salmonella Spp. and Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia Coli on Basil Leaves and Strawberries.” Ghent University.
Deng, Kaiping, Xue Wang, Li Han Yen, Hongliu Ding, and Mary Lou Tortorello. 2014. “Behavior of Shiga Toxigenic Escherichia Coli Relevant to Lettuce Washing Processes and Consideration of Factors for Evaluating Washing Process Surrogates.” Journal of Food Protection 77(11):1860–67.
Deng, Li-Zhen, Arun S. Mujumdar, Zhongli Pan, Sriram K. Vidyarthi, Jinwen Xu, Magdalena Zielinska, and Hong-Wei Xiao. 2020. “Emerging Chemical and Physical Disinfection Technologies of Fruits and Vegetables: A Comprehensive Review.” Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 60(15):2481–2508.
Domínguez Henao, Laura, Andrea Turolla, and Manuela Antonelli. 2018. “Disinfection By-Products Formation and Ecotoxicological Effects of Effluents Treated with Peracetic Acid: A Review.” Chemosphere 213:25–40.
Dunn, Alexander Hiram. 2014. “A Multi-Criteria Approach to the Evaluation of Food Safety Interventions.” University of Canterbury.
Duret, Steven, Hong‐Minh Hoang, Evelyne Derens‐Bertheau, Anthony Delahaye, Onrawee Laguerre, and Laurent Guillier. 2019. “Combining Quantitative Risk Assessment of Human Health, Food Waste, and Energy Consumption: The Next Step in the Development of the Food Cold Chain?” Risk Analysis 39(4):906–25.
EC Regulation (EC) 1333/2008. n.d. Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on Food Additives.
EC Regulation (EC) 2073/2005. n.d. Commission Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005 of 15 November 2005 on Microbiological Criteria for Foodstuffs.
EC Regulation (EU) 2020/749. 2020. COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) 2020/749 of 4 June 2020 Amending Annex III to Regulation (EC) No 396/2005 of the European Parliament and of the Council as Regards Maximum Residue Levels for Chlorate in or on Certain Products (Text with EEA Relevance).
ECHA. 2015. “Biocidal Products Committee (BPC). Opinion on the Application for Approval of the Active Substance: Peracetic Acid. ECHA/BPC/071/2015.” (September).
ECHA. 2016. “Biocidal Products Committee (BPC) Opinion on the Application for Approval of the Active Substance: Active Chlorine Released from Sodium Hypochlorite Product Type: 5 ECHA/BPC/131/2016.” (December):1–12.
ECHA. 2021. “RMOA.” Retrieved May 17, 2021 (https://echa.europa.eu/nl/understandng-rmoa).
Ecolab Inc. 2017. “Safety Data Sheet Tsunami 100 Safety Data Sheet.” 1–12.
EFSA (European Food Safety Authority), J. R. Gadelha, A. Allende, F. López-Gálvez, P. Fernández, M. I. Gil, and J. A. Egea. 2019. “Chemical Risks Associated with Ready-to-Eat Vegetables: Quantitative Analysis to Estimate Formation and/or Accumulation of Disinfection Byproducts during Washing.” EFSA Journal 17(S2).
EFSA (European Food Safety Authority), Thomas Schendel, Christian Jung, Oliver Lindtner, and Matthias Greiner. 2018. “Guidelines for Uncertainty Analysis: Application of the Respective Documents of EFSA and BfR for Exposure Assessments.” EFSA Supporting Publications 15(7).
EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) Scientific Committee, Diane Benford, Thorhallur Halldorsson, Michael John Jeger, Helle Katrine Knutsen, Simon More, Hanspeter Naegeli, Hubert Noteborn, Colin Ockleford, Antonia Ricci, Guido Rychen, Josef R. Schlatter, Vittorio Silano, Roland Solecki, Dominique Turck, Maged Younes, Peter Craig, Andrew Hart, Natalie Von Goetz, Kostas Koutsoumanis, Alicja Mortensen, Bernadette Ossendorp, Laura Martino, Caroline Merten, Olaf Mosbach-Schulz, and Anthony Hardy. 2018. “Guidance on Uncertainty Analysis in Scientific Assessments.” EFSA Journal 16(1):1–39.
EFSA Panel on Biological Hazards (BIOHAZ). 2013. “Scientific Opinion on the Risk Posed by Pathogens in Food of Non-Animal Origin. Part 1 (Outbreak Data Analysis and Risk Ranking of Food/Pathogen Combinations).” EFSA Journal 11(1).
EFSA Panel on Biological Hazards (BIOHAZ). 2014a. “Scientific Opinion on the Evaluation of the Safety and Efficacy of Peroxyacetic Acid Solutions for Reduction of Pathogens on Poultry Carcasses and Meat1.” EFSA Journal 12(3):1–60.
EFSA Panel on Biological Hazards (BIOHAZ). 2014b. “Scientific Opinion on the Risk Posed by Pathogens in Food of Non-Animal Origin. Part 2 (Salmonella and Norovirus in Leafy Greens Eaten Raw as Salads).” EFSA Journal 12(3):3600.
Erlacher, Armin, Massimiliano Cardinale, Rita Grosch, Martin Grube, and Gabriele Berg. 2014. “The Impact of the Pathogen Rhizoctonia Solani and Its Beneficial Counterpart Bacillus Amyloliquefaciens on the Indigenous Lettuce Microbiome.” Frontiers in Microbiology 5(APR):1–8.
European Commission. 2017a. Better Regulation Guidelines.
European Commission. 2017b. “Commission Notice on Guidance Document on Addressing Microbiological Risks in Fresh Fruits and Vegetables at Primary Production through Good Hygiene.” Official Journal of the European Union. C300. Volume 57.
European Parliament and Council. 2012. Regulation (EU) No 528/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council If 22 May 2012 Concerning the Making Available on the Market and Use of Biocidal Products (Text with EEA Relevance).
Eygue, Mounia, Florence Richard-Forget, Jean-Michel Cappelier, Laetitia Pinson-Gadais, and Jeanne-Marie Membré. 2020. “Development of a Risk-Ranking Framework to Evaluate Simultaneously Biological and Chemical Hazards Related to Food Safety: Application to Emerging Dietary Practices in France.” Food Control 115:107279.
FAO/WHO. 2004. “Risk Assessment of Listeria Monocytogenes in Ready-to-Eat Foods - Meeting Report.” in Microbiological risk assessment series ; no. 5.
FAO/WHO. 2008. Microbiological Hazards in Fresh Leafy Vegetables and Herbs. Vol. 4.
FAO/WHO. 2012. “INVENTORY OF SUBSTANCES USED AS PROCESSING AIDS (IPA), UPDATED LIST.” JOINT FAO/WHO FOOD STANDARDS PROGRAMME CODEX COMMITTEE ON FOOD ADDITIVES Forty Fourth Session (February).
FAO/WHO. 2019. “Safety and Quality of Water Used in Food Production and Processing – Meeting Report.” in Microbiological Risk Assessment Series no. 33. Rome.
FAO. 2017. “Food Safety Risk Management Evidence-Informed Policies and Decisions, Considering Multiple Factors Fao Guidance Materials Food Safety and Quality Series 4.” in Food Safety Risk Management Evidence-Informed Policies and Decisions, Considering Multiple Factors. Rome.
Fazil, A., A. Rajic, J. Sanchez, and S. McEwen. 2008. “Choices, Choices: The Application of Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis to a Food Safety Decision-Making Problem.” Journal of Food Protection 71(11):2323–33.
Van der Fels-Klerx, H. J., E. D. Van Asselt, M. Raley, M. Poulsen, H. Korsgaard, L. Bredsdorff, M. Nauta, M. D’agostino, D. Coles, H. J. P. Marvin, and L. J. Frewer. 2018. “Critical Review of Methods for Risk Ranking of Food-Related Hazards, Based on Risks for Human Health.” Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 58(2):178–93.
Figueira, José, Salvatore Greco, and Matthias Ehrgott. 2005. MULTIPLE CRITERIA DECISION ANALYSIS: STATE OF THE ART SURVEYS.
Foong-Cunningham, S. C. C., E. L. C. Verkaar, and K. M. J. Swanson. 2012. Microbial Decontamination of Fresh Produce. Woodhead Publishing Limited.
Francis, Gillian A., Christopher Thomas, and David O’Beirne. 1999. “The Microbiological Safety of Minimally Processed Vegetables.” International Journal of Food Science and Technology 34(1):1–22.
Garre, Alberto, Geraldine Boué, Pablo S. Fernández, Jeanne Marie Membré, and Jose A. Egea. 2020. “Evaluation of Multicriteria Decision Analysis Algorithms in Food Safety: A Case Study on Emerging Zoonoses Prioritization.” Risk Analysis 40(2):336–51.
Garrett, E. H., U. R. Gorny, L. R. Beuchat, J. N. Farber, L. J. Harris, M. E. Parish, T. V. Suslow, and F. F. Busta. 2003. “Microbiological Safety of Fresh and Fresh-Cut Produce: Description of the Situation and Economic Impact.” Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 2(1 SUPPL.):13–37.
Garrido, Yolanda, Alicia Marín, Juan A. Tudela, Ana Allende, and María I. Gil. 2019. “Chlorate Uptake during Washing Is Influenced by Product Type and Cut Piece Size, as Well as Washing Time and Wash Water Content.” Postharvest Biology and Technology 151(January):45–52.
Gil, María I., Francisco López-Gálvez, Silvia Andújar, Macarena Moreno, and Ana Allende. 2019. “Disinfection By-Products Generated by Sodium Hypochlorite and Electrochemical Disinfection in Different Process Wash Water and Fresh-Cut Products and Their Reduction by Activated Carbon.” Food Control 100(September 2018):46–52.
Gil, Maria I., Maria V. Selma, Francisco López-Gálvez, and Ana Allende. 2009. “Fresh-Cut Product Sanitation and Wash Water Disinfection: Problems and Solutions.” International Journal of Food Microbiology 134(1–2):37–45.
Gil, Maria I., Maria V. Selma, Trevor Suslow, Liesbeth Jacxsens, Mieke Uyttendaele, and Ana Allende. 2015. “Pre- and Postharvest Preventive Measures and Intervention Strategies to Control Microbial Food Safety Hazards of Fresh Leafy Vegetables.” Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 55(4):453–68.
Gil, Maria Isabel, Alicia Marín, Silvia Andujar, and Ana Allende. 2016. “Should Chlorate Residues Be of Concern in Fresh-Cut Salads?” Food Control 60:416–21.
Gombas, D., Y. Luo, J. Brennan, G. Shergill, R. Petran, R. Walsh, H. Hau, K. Khurana, B. Zomorodi, J. Rosen, R. Varley, and K. Deng. 2017. “Guidelines to Validate Control of Cross-Contamination during Washing of Fresh-Cut Leafy Vegetables.” Journal of Food Protection 80(2):312–30.
Gómez-López, Vicente M., María I. Gil, Ana Allende, Bert Vanhee, and María V. Selma. 2015. “Water Reconditioning by High Power Ultrasound Combined with Residual Chemical Sanitizers to Inactivate Foodborne Pathogens Associated with Fresh-Cut Products.” Food Control 53:29–34.
Gómez-López, Vicente M., Ann Sophie Lannoo, Maria I. Gil, and Ana Allende. 2014. “Minimum Free Chlorine Residual Level Required for the Inactivation of Escherichia Coli O157: H7 and Trihalomethane Generation during Dynamic Washing of Fresh-Cut Spinach.” Food Control 42:132–38.
Gómez-López, Vicente M., Alicia Marín, María S. Medina-Martínez, María I. Gil, and Ana Allende. 2013. “Generation of Trihalomethanes with Chlorine-Based Sanitizers and Impact on Microbial, Nutritional and Sensory Quality of Baby Spinach.” Postharvest Biology and Technology 85:210–17.
Gore. 1987. “Biostatistics and the Medical Research Council.” MRC News 35:19−20.
Gorni, Chiara, Donatella Allemand, Dario Rossi, and Paola Mariani. 2015. “Microbiome Profiling in Fresh-Cut Products.” Trends in Food Science and Technology 46(2):295–301.
Greco, Salvatore, Matthias Ehrgott, and José Rui Figueira. 2016. Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis: State of the Art Surveys. Vol. 78. Second.
Greco, Salvatore, Alessio Ishizaka, Menelaos Tasiou, and Gianpiero Torrisi. 2019. “On the Methodological Framework of Composite Indices: A Review of the Issues of Weighting, Aggregation, and Robustness.” Social Indicators Research 141(1):61–94.
Hasson, Felicity, Sinead Keeney, and Hugh McKenna. 2000. “Research Guidelines for the Delphi Survey Technique.” Journal of Advanced Nursing 32(4):1008–15.
Van Haute, S., F. López-Gálvez, V. M. Gómez-López, Markus Eriksson, F. Devlieghere, Ana Allende, and I. Sampers. 2015. “Methodology for Modeling the Disinfection Efficiency of Fresh-Cut Leafy Vegetables Wash Water Applied on Peracetic Acid Combined with Lactic Acid.” International Journal of Food Microbiology 208:102–13.
Van Haute, S., I. Tryland, C. Escudero, M. Vanneste, and I. Sampers. 2017. “Chlorine Dioxide as Water Disinfectant during Fresh-Cut Iceberg Lettuce Washing: Disinfectant Demand, Disinfection Efficiency, and Chlorite Formation.” LWT - Food Science and Technology 75:301–4.
Van Haute, Sam, Imca Sampers, Kevin Holvoet, and Mieke Uyttendaelea. 2013. “Physicochemical Quality and Chemical Safety of Chlorine as a Reconditioning Agent and Wash Water Disinfectant for Fresh-Cut Lettuce Washing.” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 79(9):2850–61.
Van Haute, Sam, Imca Sampers, Liesbeth Jacxsens, and Mieke Uyttendaele. 2015. “Selection Criteria for Water Disinfection Techniques in Agricultural Practices.” Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 55(11):1529–51.
Heaton, J. C., and K. Jones. 2008. “Microbial Contamination of Fruit and Vegetables and the Behaviour of Enteropathogens in the Phyllosphere: A Review.” Journal of Applied Microbiology 104(3):613–26.
Henson, Spencer, and Oliver Masakure. 2012. “Establishing Priorities for SPS Capacity ‐ Building : A Guide to Multi ‐ Criteria Decision ‐ Making.” (September).
Holvoet, K., A. De Keuckelaere, I. Sampers, S. Van Haute, A. Stals, and M. Uyttendaele. 2014. “Quantitative Study of Cross-Contamination with Escherichia Coli, E.Coli O157, MS2 Phage and Murine Norovirus in a Simulated Fresh-Cut Lettuce Wash Process.” Food Control 37(1):218–27.
Holvoet, Kevin, A. De Keuckelaere, I. Sampers, S. Van Haute, A. Stals, and M. Uyttendaele. 2014. “Quantitative Study of Cross-Contamination with Escherichia Coli, E. Coli O157, MS2 Phage and Murine Norovirus in a Simulated Fresh-Cut Lettuce Wash Process.” Food Control 37:218–27.
Horby, P. W., S. J. O’Brien, G. K. Adak, C. Graham, J. I. Hawker, P. Hunter, C. Lane, A. J. Lawson, R. T. Mitchell, M. H. Reacher, E. J. Threlfall, L. R. Ward, J. F. Aguilera, M. A. Catchpole, O. N. Gill, I. A. Gillespie, C. Graham, S. Gregor, V. A. Hollyoak, P. W. Horby, C. Lane, T. Lamagni, S. le Baigue, S. M. Long, A. C. McCartney, R. Rooney, B. Said, W. J. Smerdon, Q. Syed, and B. Twisselman. 2003. “A National Outbreak of Multi-Resistant Salmonella Enterica Serovar Typhimurium Definitive Phage Type (DT) 104 Associated with Consumption of Lettuce.” Epidemiology and Infection 130(2):169–78.
Huang, Ivy B., Jeffrey Keisler, and Igor Linkov. 2011. “Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis in Environmental Sciences: Ten Years of Applications and Trends.” Science of the Total Environment 409(19):3578–94.
Hunter, Paul J., Paul Hand, David Pink, John M. Whipps, and Gary D. Bending. 2010. “Both Leaf Properties and Microbe-Microbe Interactions Influence within-Species Variation in Bacterial Population Diversity and Structure in the Lettuce (Lactuca Species) Phyllosphere.” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 76(24):8117–25.
Hyde, Kylie, Holger R. Maier, and Christopher Colby. 2003. “Incorporating Uncertainty in the PROMETHEE MCDA Method.” Journal of Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis 12(4–5):245–59.
International Fresh-Cut Produce Association IFPA. 2001. “Wash Water Sanitation.” Pp. 121–136. in Food Safety Guidelines for the Fresh-Cut Produce Industry., edited by J. R. Gorny. Alexandria: International Fresh-Cut Produce Association.
Jackson, Colin R., Kevin C. Randolph, Shelly L. Osborn, and Heather L. Tyler. 2013. “Culture Dependent and Independent Analysis of Bacterial Communities Associated with Commercial Salad Leaf Vegetables.” BMC Microbiology 13(1):1–12.
Joshi, Ankur, Saket Kale, Satish Chandel, and D. Pal. 2015. “Likert Scale: Explored and Explained.” British Journal of Applied Science & Technology 7(4):396–403.
Kaczmarek, Maciej, Simon V. Avery, and Ian Singleton. 2019. Microbes Associated with Fresh Produce: Sources, Types and Methods to Reduce Spoilage and Contamination. Vol. 107. 1st ed. Elsevier Inc.
Karvetski, Christopher W., James H. Lambert, and Igor Linkov. 2011. “Scenario and Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis for Energy and Environmental Security of Military and Industrial Installations.” Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management 7(2):228–36.
Kitis, Mehmet. 2004. “Disinfection of Wastewater with Peracetic Acid: A Review.” Environment International 30(1):47–55.
Labaz Hygiene Concept. 2016. “Veiligheidsinformatieblad Chlorax.” 1–9.
Lahdelma, Risto, Joonas Hokkanen, and Pekka Salminen. 1998. “SMAA - Stochastic Multiobjective Acceptability Analysis.” European Journal of Operational Research 106(1):137–43.
Lahdelma, Risto, and Pekka Salminen. 2001. “SMAA-2: Stochastic Multicriteria Acceptability Analysis for Group Decision Making.” Operations Research 49(3):444–54.
Lee, Dong Hwan, Jin Beom Kim, Mihyun Kim, Eunjung Roh, Kyusuk Jung, Minseon Choi, Changsik Oh, Jaehyuk Choi, Jongchul Yun, and Sunggi Heu. 2013. “Microbiota on Spoiled Vegetables and Their Characterization.” Journal of Food Protection 76(8):1350–58.
Leff, Jonathan W., and Noah Fierer. 2013. “Bacterial Communities Associated with the Surfaces of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables.” PLoS ONE 8(3):1–9.
Lehto, Marja, Ilkka Sipilä, Laura Alakukku, and Hanna Riitta Kymäläinen. 2014. “Water Consumption and Wastewaters in Fresh-Cut Vegetable Production.” Agricultural and Food Science 23(4):246–56.
Van der Linden, Inge, Karina R. Avalos Llano, Markus Eriksson, Winnok H. De Vos, Els J. M. Van Damme, Mieke Uyttendaele, and Frank Devlieghere. 2016. “Minimal Processing of Iceberg Lettuce Has No Substantial Influence on the Survival, Attachment and Internalization of E. Coli O157 and Salmonella.” International Journal of Food Microbiology 238(2016):40–49.
Linkov, I., F. K. Satterstrom, G. Kiker, C. Batchelor, T. Bridges, and E. Ferguson. 2006. “From Comparative Risk Assessment to Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis and Adaptive Management: Recent Developments and Applications.” Environment International 32(8):1072–93.
Linkov, I., F. K. Satterstrom, G. Kiker, T. P. Seager, T. Bridges, K. H. Gardner, S. H. Rogers, D. A. Belluck, and A. Meyer. 2006. “Multicriteria Decision Analysis: A Comprehensive Decision Approach for Management of Contaminated Sediments.” Risk Analysis 26(1):61–78.
Little, C. L., and I. A. Gillespie. 2008. “Prepared Salads and Public Health.” Journal of Applied Microbiology 105(6):1729–43.
Little, C. L., F. C. Taylor, S. K. Sagoo, I. A. Gillespie, K. Grant, and J. McLauchlin. 2007. “Prevalence and Level of Listeria Monocytogenes and Other Listeria Species in Retail Pre-Packaged Mixed Vegetable Salads in the UK.” Food Microbiology 24(7–8):711–17.
Liu, Cheng. 2016. Impact of Climate Change on Microbial Safety of Leafy Green Vegetables.
López-Gálvez, Francisco, Ana Allende, Pilar Truchado, Ascensión Martínez-Sánchez, Juan A. Tudela, María V. Selma, and María I. Gil. 2010. “Suitability of Aqueous Chlorine Dioxide versus Sodium Hypochlorite as an Effective Sanitizer for Preserving Quality of Fresh-Cut Lettuce While Avoiding by-Product Formation.” Postharvest Biology and Technology 55(1):53–60.
López-Gálvez, Francisco, Juan A. Tudela, Ana Allende, and Maria I. Gil. 2019. “Microbial and Chemical Characterization of Commercial Washing Lines of Fresh Produce Highlights the Need for Process Water Control.” Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 51(January 2018):211–19.
Lopez-Velasco, G., G. E. Welbaum, R. R. Boyer, S. P. Mane, and M. A. Ponder. 2011. “Changes in Spinach Phylloepiphytic Bacteria Communities Following Minimal Processing and Refrigerated Storage Described Using Pyrosequencing of 16S RRNA Amplicons.” Journal of Applied Microbiology 110(5):1203–14.
Luo, Yaguang, Xiangwu Nou, Patricia Millner, Bin Zhou, Cangliang Shen, Yang Yang, Yunpeng Wu, Qin Wang, Hao Feng, and Dan Shelton. 2012. “A Pilot Plant Scale Evaluation of a New Process Aid for Enhancing Chlorine Efficacy against Pathogen Survival and Cross-Contamination during Produce Wash.” International Journal of Food Microbiology 158(2):133–39.
Luo, Yaguang, Bin Zhou, Sam Van Haute, Xiangwu Nou, Boce Zhang, Zi Teng, Ellen R. Turner, Qin Wang, and Patricia D. Millner. 2018. “Association between Bacterial Survival and Free Chlorine Concentration during Commercial Fresh-Cut Produce Wash Operation.” Food Microbiology 70:120–28.
Maffei, Daniele F., Verônica O. Alvarenga, Anderson S. Sant’Ana, and Bernadette D. G. M. Franco. 2016. “Assessing the Effect of Washing Practices Employed in Brazilian Processing Plants on the Quality of Ready-to-Eat Vegetables.” LWT - Food Science and Technology 69:474–81.
Manzocco, Lara, Alexandra Ignat, Monica Anese, Francesca Bot, Sonia Calligaris, Fabio Valoppi, and Maria Cristina Nicoli. 2015. “Efficient Management of the Water Resource in the Fresh-Cut Industry: Current Status and Perspectives.” Trends in Food Science and Technology 46(2):286–94.
Marín, Alicia, Juan A. Tudela, Yolanda Garrido, Sofía Albolafio, Natalia Hernández, Silvia Andújar, Ana Allende, and Maria I. Gil. 2020. “Chlorinated Wash Water and PH Regulators Affect Chlorine Gas Emission and Disinfection By-Products.” Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 66(October).
Marsh, Kevin, Mireille Goetghebeur, Praveen Thokala, and Rob Baltussen. 2017. Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis to Support Healthcare Decisions.
Maystre, L. Y., J. Pictet, and J. Simos. 1994. Methodes Multicritères ELECTRE. Lausanne.
Mazzocchi, Mario, Maddalena Ragona, and Agostina Zanoli. 2013. “A Fuzzy Multi-Criteria Approach for the Ex-Ante Impact Assessment of Food Safety Policies.”
McLauchlin, J., R. T. Mitchell, W. J. Smerdon, and K. Jewell. 2004. “Listeria Monocytogenes and Listeriosis: A Review of Hazard Characterisation for Use in Microbiological Risk Assessment of Foods.” International Journal of Food Microbiology 92(1):15–33.
MINISTÈRE DE L’ÉCONOMIE, DES FINANCES ET DE L’INDUSTRIE. 2006. “Arrêté Du 19 Octobre 2006 Relatif à l’emploi d’auxiliaires Technologiques Dans La Fabrication de Certaines Denrées Alimentaires.” JOURNAL OFFICIEL DE LA RÉPUBLIQUE FRANÇAISE 1–2.
Mogren, Lars, Sofia Windstam, Sofia Boqvist, Ivar Vågsholm, Karin Söderqvist, Anna K. Rosberg, Julia Lindén, Emina Mulaosmanovic, Maria Karlsson, Elisabeth Uhlig, Asa Håkansson, and Beatrix Alsanius. 2018. “The Hurdle Approach-A Holistic Concept for Controlling Food Safety Risks Associated with Pathogenic Bacterial Contamination of Leafy Green Vegetables. A Review.” Frontiers in Microbiology 9(AUG):1–20.
Mokhtari, Amir, David Oryang, Yuhuan Chen, Regis Pouillot, and Jane Van Doren. 2018. “A Mathematical Model for Pathogen Cross-Contamination Dynamics during the Postharvest Processing of Leafy Greens.” Risk Analysis 38(8):1718–37.
Mourits, M. C. M., M. A. P. M. van Asseldonk, and R. B. M. Huirne. 2010. “Multi Criteria Decision Making to Evaluate Control Strategies of Contagious Animal Diseases.” Preventive Veterinary Medicine 96(3–4):201–10.
Müller, Luise, Lasse Dam Rasmussen, Tenna Jensen, Anna Charlotte Schultz, Charlotte Kjelsø, Celine Barnadas, Kim Sigsgaard, Anne Ribert Larsen, Carl Widstrup Jensen, Simon Jeppesen, Katrine Uhrbrand, Nikolas Hove, Kåre Mølbak, and Steen Ethelberg. 2016. “Series of Norovirus Outbreaks Caused by Consumption of Green Coral Lettuce, Denmark, April 2016.” PLoS Currents 8:ecurrents.outbreaks.115761d5d6de6a8bc7dd4b41f0f5f1.
Nahim-Granados, Samira, Gracia Rivas-Ibáñez, José Antonio Sánchez Pérez, Isabel Oller, Sixto Malato, and María Inmaculada Polo-López. 2020. “Synthetic Fresh-Cut Wastewater Disinfection and Decontamination by Ozonation at Pilot Scale.” Water Research 170.
Nguyen-the, Christophe, and Frédéric Carlin. 1994. “The Microbiology of Minimally Processed Fresh Fruits and Vegetables.” Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 34(4):371–401.
Olaimat, Amin N., and Richard A. Holley. 2012. “Factors Influencing the Microbial Safety of Fresh Produce: A Review.” Food Microbiology 32(1):1–19.
Ölmez, Hülya. 2016. “Foodborne Pathogenic Bacteria in Fresh-Cut Vegetables and Fruits.” Food Hygiene and Toxicology in Ready-to-Eat Foods 151–66.
Painter, John A., Robert M. Hoekstra, Tracy Ayers, Robert V. Tauxe, Christopher R. Braden, Frederick J. Angulo, and Patricia M. Griffin. 2013. “Attribution of Foodborne Illnesses, Hospitalizations, and Deaths to Food Commodities by Using Outbreak Data, United States, 1998-2008.” Emerging Infectious Diseases 19(3):407–15.
Palisade. 2021. “Palisade: Maker of Risk & Decision Analysis Software Using Monte Carlo Simulation.” Retrieved June 2, 2021 (https://www.palisade.com/).
Pang, Hao, Elisabetta Lambertini, Robert L. Buchanan, Donald W. Schaffner, and Abani K. Pradhan. 2017. “Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment for Escherichia Coli O157:H7 in Fresh-Cut Lettuce.” Journal of Food Protection 80(2):302–11.
Pelissari, Renata, Maria Celia Oliveira, Alvaro J. Abackerli, Sarah Ben-Amor, and Maria Rita Pontes Assumpção. 2021. “Techniques to Model Uncertain Input Data of Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Problems: A Literature Review.” International Transactions in Operational Research 28(2):523–59.
Pérez Rodríguez, F., D. Campos, E. T. Ryser, A. L. Buchholz, G. D. Posada-Izquierdo, B. P. Marks, G. Zurera, and E. Todd. 2011. “A Mathematical Risk Model for Escherichia Coli O157:H7 Cross-Contamination of Lettuce during Processing.” Food Microbiology 28(4):694–701.
Powell, Catherine. 2003. “The Delphi Technique: Myths and Realities.” Journal of Advanced Nursing 41(4):376–82.
Pradhan, Abani K., Abhinav Mishra, and Hao Pang. 2018. “Relevant Pathogenic and Spoilage Microorganisms in Vegetable Products.” P. 306 in Quantitative Methods for Food Safety and Quality in the Vegetable Industry.
Ragaert, P., F. Devlieghere, and J. Debevere. 2007. “Role of Microbiological and Physiological Spoilage Mechanisms during Storage of Minimally Processed Vegetables.” Postharvest Biology and Technology 44(3):185–94.
Ragaert, Peter, Wim Verbeke, Frank Devlieghere, and Johan Debevere. 2004. “Consumer Perception and Choice of Minimally Processed Vegetables and Packaged Fruits.” Food Quality and Preference 15(3):259–70.
Ramos, B., F. A. Miller, T. R. S. Brandão, P. Teixeira, and C. L. M. Silva. 2013. “Fresh Fruits and Vegetables - An Overview on Applied Methodologies to Improve Its Quality and Safety.” Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 20:1–15.
Rastogi, Gurdeep, Adrian Sbodio, Jan J. Tech, Trevor V. Suslow, Gitta L. Coaker, and Johan H. J. Leveau. 2012. “Leaf Microbiota in an Agroecosystem: Spatiotemporal Variation in Bacterial Community Composition on Field-Grown Lettuce.” ISME Journal 6(10):1812–22.
Riabacke, Mona, Mats Danielson, and Love Ekenberg. 2012. “State-of-the-Art Prescriptive Criteria Weight Elicitation.” Advances in Decision Sciences 2012.
Rico, D., A. B. Martín-Diana, J. M. Barat, and C. Barry-Ryan. 2007. “Extending and Measuring the Quality of Fresh-Cut Fruit and Vegetables: A Review.” Trends in Food Science and Technology 18(7):373–86.
Rigo, Paula Donaduzzi, Graciele Rediske, Carmen Brum Rosa, Natália Gava Gastaldo, Leandro Michels, Alvaro Luiz Neuenfeldt Júnior, and Julio Cezar Mairesse Siluk. 2020. “Renewable Energy Problems: Exploring the Methods to Support the Decision-Making Process.” Sustainability (Switzerland) 12(23):1–27.
Rodgers, Stephanie L., Jerry N. Cash, Mohammad Siddiq, and Elliot T. Ryser. 2004. “A Comparison of Different Chemical Sanitizers for Inactivating Escherichia Coli O157:H7 and Listeria Monocytogenes in Solution and on Apples, Lettuce, Strawberries, and Cantaloupe.” Journal of Food Protection 67(4):721–31.
Rosberg, Anna Karin, Julia Darlison, Lars Mogren, and Beatrix Waechter Alsanius. 2021. “Commercial Wash of Leafy Vegetables Do Not Significantly Decrease Bacterial Load but Leads to Shifts in Bacterial Species Composition.” Food Microbiology 94(July 2020):103667.
Ruzante, Juliana M., Khara Grieger, Katherine Woodward, Elisabetta Lambertini, and Barbara Kowalcyk. 2017. “The Use of Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis in Food Safety Risk-Benefit Assessment.” Food Protection Trends 37(2):132–39.
Ruzante, Juliana Martins, Valerie J. Davidson, Julie Caswell, Aamir Fazil, John A. L. Cranfield, Spencer J. Henson, Sven M. Anders, Claudia Schmidt, and Jeffrey M. Farber. 2010. “A Multifactorial Risk Prioritization Framework for Foodborne Pathogens.” Risk Analysis 30(5):724–42.
Schlech, Walter F., Pierre M. Lavigne, Robert A. Bortolussi, Alexander C. Allen, E. Vanora Haldane, A. John Wort, Allen W. Hightower, Scott E. Johnson, Stanley H. King, Eric S. Nicholls, and Claire V Broome. 1983. “Epidemic Listeriosis — Evidence for Transmission by Food.” New England Journal of Medicine 308(4):203–6.
SciCom FASFC. 2017. “Advies 11-2017 Betreft: Prioritering van Microbiologische Risico’s En Richtlijnen Voor Het Borgen van de Microbiologische Voedselveiligheid van Rauwe En Minimaal Bewerkte Plantaardige Levensmiddelen in België.” 59.
Shen, Cangliang, Pauline Norris, Olivia Williams, Stephanie Hagan, and Ka Wang Li. 2016. “Generation of Chlorine By-Products in Simulated Wash Water.” Food Chemistry 190:97–102.
Singh, N., R. K. Singh, A. K. Bhunia, and R. L. Stroshine. 2002. “Efficacy of Chlorine Dioxide, Ozone, and Thyme Essential Oil or a Sequential Washing in Killing Escherichia Coli O157:H7 on Lettuce and Baby Carrots.” LWT - Food Science and Technology 35(8):720–29.
Söderqvist, Karin, Omneya Ahmed Osman, Cecilia Wolff, Stefan Bertilsson, Ivar Vågsholm, and Sofia Boqvist. 2017. “Emerging Microbiota during Cold Storage and Temperature Abuse of Ready-to-Eat Salad.” Infection Ecology and Epidemiology 7(1).
Spackman, Michael, Alan D. Pearman, and Lawrence D. Phillips. 2009. Multi-Criteria Analysis : A Manual Multi-Criteria Analysis : A Manual.
Sullivan, Gail M., and Anthony R. Artino. 2013. “Analyzing and Interpreting Data From Likert-Type Scales.” Journal of Graduate Medical Education 5(4):541–42.
Suslow, Trevor. 1997. “Postharvest Chlorination: Basic Properties & Key Points for Effective Distribution.” Postharvest Chlorination: Basic Properties & Key Points for Effective Distribution.
THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN UNION. 2020. Directive (EU) 2020/2184 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 16 December 2020 on the Quality of Water Intended for Human Consumption.
Tudela, Juan A., Francisco López-Gálvez, Ana Allende, and María I. Gil. 2019. “Chlorination Management in Commercial Fresh Produce Processing Lines.” Food Control 106(April):106760.
Tudela, Juan A., Francisco López-Gálvez, Ana Allende, Natalia Hernández, Silvia Andújar, Alicia Marín, Yolanda Garrido, and Maria I. Gil. 2019. “Operational Limits of Sodium Hypochlorite for Different Fresh Produce Wash Water Based on Microbial Inactivation and Disinfection By-Products (DBPs).” Food Control 104(February):300–307.
UMass. 2015. “Produce Wash Water Sanitizers : Chlorine and PAA.” Food Science Extension (September).
UN. 2021. “Climate Change – United Nations Sustainable Development.” Retrieved May 17, 2021 (https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/climate-change/).
US EPA. 2012. “EPA Drinking Water Guidance on Disinfection By-Products Advice Note No. 4. Version 2. Disinfection by-Products in Drinking Water.” EPA Advice Note on Disinfection By-Products in Drinking Water (4):1–27.
Valdramidis, Fernando Pérez-Rodríguez Panagiotis Skandamis Vasilis. 2018. Fernando Pérez-Rodríguez Panagiotis Skandamis Vasilis Valdramidis.
Vandekinderen, I., F. Devlieghere, B. De Meulenaer, P. Ragaert, and J. Van Camp. 2009. “Optimization and Evaluation of a Decontamination Step with Peroxyacetic Acid for Fresh-Cut Produce.” Food Microbiology 26(8):882–88.
Velasquez, Mark, and Patrick Hester. 2013. “An Analysis of Multi-Criteria Decision Making Methods.” International Journal of Operations Research 10(2):56–66.
VMM. 2021. “Welkom — Vlaamse Milieumaatschappij.” Retrieved May 17, 2021 (https://www.vmm.be/).
VPSolutions. 2013. Visual PROMETHEE 1.4 Manual.
Wang, Jiayi, Dongbing Tao, Shan Wang, Chen Li, Yanru Li, Fenge Zheng, and Zhaoxia Wu. 2019. “Disinfection of Lettuce Using Organic Acids: An Ecological Analysis Using 16S RRNA Sequencing.” RSC Advances 9(30):17514–20.
WHO. 2000. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA FOR DISINFECTANTS AND DISINFECTANT BY-PRODUCTS.
Willett, Walter, Johan Rockström, Brent Loken, Marco Springmann, Tim Lang, Sonja Vermeulen, Tara Garnett, David Tilman, Fabrice DeClerck, Amanda Wood, Malin Jonell, Michael Clark, Line J. Gordon, Jessica Fanzo, Corinna Hawkes, Rami Zurayk, Juan A. Rivera, Wim De Vries, Lindiwe Majele Sibanda, Ashkan Afshin, Abhishek Chaudhary, Mario Herrero, Rina Agustina, Francesco Branca, Anna Lartey, Shenggen Fan, Beatrice Crona, Elizabeth Fox, Victoria Bignet, Max Troell, Therese Lindahl, Sudhvir Singh, Sarah E. Cornell, K. Srinath Reddy, Sunita Narain, Sania Nishtar, and Christopher J. L. Murray. 2019. “Food in the Anthropocene: The EAT–Lancet Commission on Healthy Diets from Sustainable Food Systems.” The Lancet 393(10170):447–92.
Yildiz, Fatih, and Robert C. Wiley. 2017. Minimally Processed Refrigerated Fruits and Vegetables. Vol. 2.
Zopounidis, Constantin, and Michael Doumpos. 2002. “Multi-Criteria Decision Aid in Financial Decision Making: Methodologies and Literature Review.” Journal of Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis 11(4–5):167–86.
Zyoud, Shaher H., Lorenz G. Kaufmann, Hafez Shaheen, Subhi Samhan, and Daniela Fuchs-Hanusch. 2016. “A Framework for Water Loss Management in Developing Countries under Fuzzy Environment: Integration of Fuzzy AHP with Fuzzy TOPSIS.” Expert Systems with Applications 61:86–105.
